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Lyons'*s English Grammar. 



A NEW 



GRAMMAR 



THE ENGLISH LAIGUAGE; , 



FAMIIUKIY EXPLAINED. 



AND ADAPTED TO THK USE OF 



SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE STUDENTS. 



BY T. li. liYONS, 



»- 



CINCINNATI : 

PUBLISHED BY H. S. & J. APPLEGATE, 

NO. 39 MAIN STEEBT. 

1850. 



C\ 



'\- 



Entered, according to act of Congress, in the year 1850, 
BY T. L. LYONS. 
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the State of Kentucky. 



E. Morgan & Co., Printers and Stereotypers, 
No, 111 Main Street, Cincinnati. 



TO 

THE TEACHERS ABROAD IN THE LAND; 

TO THOSE LOVERS OF LEARNING 

WHO HAVE ESPOUSED THE MOST HONORABLE AND RESPONSIBLE VOCATION 
OP TRAINING THE YOUNG FOR USEFULNESS AND FOR GREATNESS; 

TO THOSE PATERNAL GUARDIANS, 

WHO ARE ZEALOUSLY LABORING, WITH PATRIOTIC DEVOTION, 

TO EIX THE PRINCIPLES OP OUR NATIONAL LANGUAGE 

IN THE MINDS OP THE RISING GENERATION, AND 

TO HAND THAT LANGUAGE DOWN, ABUNDANTLY 

IMPROVED, TO THE LATEST POSTERITY, 

THIS WORK IS RESPECTFULLY LNSCRIBED 

BY THE 

AUTHOR. 

Lexington, Ky., 1850. 

(iii) 



PREFACE. 



" For imposing this volume upon the public, I have but one 
apology to offer, and that is this — that in the prevailing sys- 
tems, the science of Grammar is neither so conveniently arranged 
nor so aptly illustrated as it should be. Notwithstanding the 
great multiplicity of new systems, we seldom find a teacher 
well pleased with his grammar, or a pupil much interested 
in the study. The evils complained of, I have endeavored to 
remedy ; and whether I have been able to gratify others or not, 
I have at least succeeded in pleasing myself. 

" But he who blends instruction with deb'ght, 
Wins every reader, nor, in vain shall write." 

Grammar is easily learned, when properly taught. 

The plan herein developed, is that which is best adapted to 
the capacities and inclinations of children. Instead of per- 
plexing the pupil, at the very threshold, with critical principles, 
he begins with the simpler elements; and the subjects are 
graduated, and adapted to his comprehension and taste. 

After the rules of Orthography, the parts of speech are first 
presented in a synopsis, in which some of their distinguishable 
characteristics are strikingly set forth ; so that the pupil, after 
a few hours' study, can readily distinguish them. 

A COMPEND of Etymology is next presented, in which the 
attributes of all the parts of speech are forcibly illustrated, 
and various exercises given, to be corrected and parsed accord- 
ing to the rules of Syntax. The models for conjugating and 
syntactical parsing, are simple, concise, and uniform; and 

(iii) 



iv PREFACE. 

(if one is capable of judging of his own productions), they 
will be found to be the easiest and most satisfactory of any 
that have heretofore been devised. Yv^hen the pupil has gone 
through the compend of etymology, he has not failed to per- 
ceive the structure, genius, and beauty of the language ; and 
he begins even now to plume himself upon his knowledge of 
the science of grammar. 

There is next presented in the same order a recapitulation 
of etymology, embracing the more complex principles and ex- 
ercises that ^ere not introduced into the compend; together 
with many that have been usually and unnecessarily crowded 
into the syntax; so that no part is encumbered with what does 
not properly belong to it. This recapitulation he now begins 
with fortitude, and in earnest. Seeing that grammar is a sci- 
ence and an art to be understood and practiced, he is encour- 
aged at every step, ^^tirmount every obstacle. 

The third part is a complete Syntax of concise rules, notes, 
remarks, and exercises, well adapted to the convenience of both 
teacher and pupil. 

In the Prosody (the fourth part), the subjects of punctua- 
tion, elocution, versification, style, and figures, are treated of 
in a way th cannot fail to interest the young learner. 

The work throughout is both lucid and practical, and the 
subjects for exercise are chaste and moral. 

The style is neither so juvenile as to degrade the subject, 
nor so elevated as to be incomprehensible to children. 

Whatever could be esteemed useful to the practical gramma- 
rian, is embodied in this work ; and usages and idioms are 
treated of in a manner, agreeing substantially, with that of 
many of the most able and popular authors. 

For the subject matter of the work, I here acknowledge a 
particular indebtedness to Messrs. G. Brown, Butler, Bullions, 
and Wells. Many others have been duly quoted ; but to nu- 
merous quotations, used merely for examples and exercises," 
it was not entirely convenient, nor was it necessary to append 
the name of the author, — indeed some of them have been 



PREFACE. 5 

quoted so often, that it is impossible to tell who the original au- 
thor was. 

The popular nomenclature is left unchanged, except a slight 
departure in the moods and tenses; and this, I have found 
from ten years' experience in oral lecturing, to be a decided 
improvement. 

I have endeavored to make this an accurate work, but it by 
no means claims to be perfect. Believing, however, that even 
the hyper-critic will find in it much more to commend than to 
condemn, I send it out to the world to be judged by an en- 
lightened and generous public— to stand or to fall by its own 
merits. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



1. English Grammar is the art of speaking and writing 
the English Language according to established practice. 

'2. By established practice is meant, reputable, national, and present 
usage. 

3. The established practice of the best speakers and writers, is con- 
sidered the standard of grammatical accuracy. 

4. English grammar is divided into four parts: viz: Or- 
thography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 



PAET I. 
ORTHOGEAPHY. 

5. Orthography treats of letters, syllables, and the spelling 
of words. 

OF LETTERS. 

6. A letter is a character used in writing to represent an 
articulate sound. 

7. There are twenty-six letters in the English Alphabet; 
and these are divided into vowels and consonants. 

*[Lesson I.] 1. What is English Grammar 1 2. What is meant by established prac- 
tice "? 3. What is the standard of grammatical accuracy 7 4. Into how many parts is 
the grammar divided ? — Name them. 5. Of what does orthography treat ? 6. What 
is a letter 1 7. How many letters in the English alphabet 1 — How are they divided 1 

*To THE Teacher. — The questions at the bottom of the pages are divided into les- 
sons and half lessons, to suit pupils of different ages and capacities. Some may learn a 
lesson while others learn only a half-lesson. (Marked ^^^).) If the teacher should 
choose to regard'these marks of division, he may find them very convenient; but if he 
bkould choose to disregard them, they can give him no inconvenience. 

(7) 



8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

8. Vowels. — A vowel is a letter wliich makes a full and dis- 
tinct sound of itself. 

9. The vowels are a, e.. i, o, u, and sometimes w and y. 

10. Consonants. — A consonant is a letter wliicli cannot be 
distinctly uttered without combining with it the sound of a 
vowel. 

11. The consonants are b, e, d, f, g, h, j, k, 1, m, n, p, q, r, s, 

t, V, X, z, and sometimes w and y. 

12. W and y are consonants when they precede a vowel in the same 
syllable : as, wine, twine, thwart, year, yet, youth. In all other situa- 
ations they are vowels : as, law, hawk, owl, betray, Maryland, Yttria. 

13. A diphthong is the union of two vowels in one syllable: 
as, oi in soil ; ea in beat. 

14. When both vowels are sounded, as in soil, the union is called a 
proper diphthongs; but when only one is sounded, as in beat, it is called 
an improper diphthong. 

15. A triphthong is the union of three vowels in one sylla- 
ble : as, eau in beauty, iew in view. 

OF SYLLABLES. 

16. A syllable is one or more letters pronounced by a single 
impulse of the voice : as, a in acorn ; an in angle. 

17. A monosyllable is a word of one syllable : as, far. 

18. A dissyllable is a word of two syllables : as, far-ther. 

19. A trisyllable is a word of three syllables : as, far-ther- 
most. 

20. A polysyllable is a word of more than three syllables: 
as, far-rag-in-ous, ar-tic-u-la-tion. 

OF SPELLING. 

21. Spelling is the art of expressing words by theii* proper 
letters, and of rightly dividing them into syllables. 

8. What is a vowel ? 9. Name the vowels. 10. WTiat is a consonant ? 11. Name 
the consonants. 12 When are w and y consonants ? — Give examples. When are w 
and y vowels? Examples. ^J^). 13. What is a diphthong 7— Examples. 14. When 
is the union of two vowels called a proper diphthong 1 When an improper diphthong? 
15. What is a triphthong? Examples. 16. What is a syllable? Examples. 17. A 
monosyllable ? Example. ]8. A dissyllable ? Example, 19. A trisyllable 1 Ex- 
ample. 20. A polysyllable ? Examples. 21. What is spelling? 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 9 

22. The proper pronunciation of words, is called Orthoepy. 

Observation. — Both spelling and orthoepy are to be learned from dic- 
tionaries and spelling books. It is impracticable, in this place, to give 
precise rules for the spelling of all words. Only a few are here pre- 
sented, and with these every pupil should become well acquainted; but 
inasmuch as they are somewhat uninteresting to beginners, the pupil, until 
he shall have perused the work, may omit them, and proceed to ety- 
mology. 

RULES FOR SPELLING. 

Rule 1. The consonant/, I, or s, is doubled, when it both 
follows a vowel and ends a monosyllable : as, staff, fell, miss— 
NOT, staf, fel, mis. 

Exceptions. — Was, gas, as, is, his, pus, yes, if, this, has, thus, of, us. 

EXEECISE 1 . 
FALSE OKTHOGRAPHY TO BE COEREGTED. 
With my staf in hand, I shal pas through the valley. Wei may you 
gues that snuf wil injure you. Oxygen gass supports combustion,^ 

Rule. 2. — No consonant is doubled when it ends a word, 
except /, I, and s : as, corn, wheat, hemp — not, cornn^ wheatt, 
hempp. 

Exceptions. — Add, ebb, inn, purr, butt, buzz, Qgg, odd, err. 

exercise 2. 

Warr is an evil. We have a new mapp of Mexico. Gett a snu gg 
rodd from the sodd, and tapp tlie tubb in the mudd. To er is human. 
There is luck in od numbers. 

Rule 3. — Every consonant is doubled before an additional 
syllable beginning with a vowel, when the consonant both fol- 
lows a single vowel and ends a monosyllable or a word accented 
on the last syllable : thus, From red, comes redder : From 
dbetf abetting and abettor. 

Exceptions. — ^X and k are never doubled. 

exercises. 
If we rob a rober, what shall we gain by robing ? Let us begin at the 
* Exercises relating to the exceptions, are marked in italics. 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

begining. If we admit the man that we admited before, ivhat shall lie 
give for admitance? That wit became wity at our runing and overseting. 
That was confering no favor. Trackking on ice is perplexxing. 

Rule. 4. — If the final consonant follows a diphthong, or if 
the accent is not on the last syllable, or if by adding the syl- 
lable we remove the accent, then the final consonant is not 
doubled : thus. From hear comes hearing : From hatter, hal- 
tered : From refer, reference. 

Exception i. In bias and worship, s and p are generally doubled before 
the suffix : as, biassing, worshipping. 

Exception ii. Some writers double the final I when the accent is not 
on the last syllable: thus, From travel they make traveller: From model, 
modelling, 

EXERCISE 4. 

Why are we toilling for naught? The hammer is used for hammerring. 
Ministers confer in conferrence assembled. Having loanned the money, 
it was his preferrence to have the debt cancelled. 

Rule 5. — Frimitive"^ words ending in II, drop one I before 

less and ly : thus, From skill comes sJcilless : From chill, chilly. 

Remark. — All and full, when permanently joined to other words, 
commonly drop an /; as, also, mirthful. 

EXEE CISE 5 . 

A man without skill, is skilless. They had full measure and were 
fullly satisfied. They were all so attentive, as never to need reproof ; 
and they were allso cheerful! and happy. 

Rule 6. — Final e is dropped before additional suffixes be- 
ginning with a vowel, but retained before those beginning with 
a consonant : as, loving, lovely. 

Exception i. We write singeing and swingeing, to distinguish these 
words from singing and swinging. 

Exception ii. To preserve the soft sound of c and g, in words ending 
in ce and ge, the final e is not dropped before ahle: as, peaceable, man- 



Exception hi. Some writers do not drop the e before able, in the words 
blamable, provable, movable, salable; but write blameable, proveable, move- 
able, saleable. 

• A primitive word is one that is not formed from any simpler word in the language. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 11 

Exception iv. From dye^ (to color,) comes dyeing: From hoe comes 



Exception v. Some writers do not drop the e after dg^ but others do: 
as, acknowledgement, acknowledgment. 

Exception vi. In the words dulyi (from due,) truly, (from true,) and 
awfuli (from awe,) the e is dropped before the consonant. 

EXERCISE 6 . 

I ride now, and I shall be rideing to-morrow. I saw him write, and I 
am sure he is an excellent writeer. Men of sense, are senseible, and act 
senseibly. It will never cease, for it is ceasless. The entire affair was 
entirly forgotten. That little girl is singing her hair. The horse is man- 
agahle and peacable. Logioood is used for dying. True love is truely 
lovly. 

Rule 7. — ^T^^hen y, ending a primitive word, is preceded by 
a consonant, it is changed to i before any additional word or 
syllable except in^ : as, I try, I tried, I am trying. 

EXERCISE 7. 

The first was merry; the second merryer; the third, merryest. We 
pity a pity able object. We try now and we will continue triing. 

KuLE 8. — Final y is not changed to i when it is preceded 
by a vowel : thus, from betray comes betrayed. 

Exceptions. — From sa?/, comes sai<^; From lay Jaid: From pay, paid. 

EXERCISE 8 . 

He portraied the consequences. He was very much annold. He sayed 
he layed down the money and payed the forfeit. 



PART II. 
ETYMOLOGY. 

23. Etymology treats of the different sorts of words and 
their various modifications. 

24. Vt^ords are the signs of ideas. 

25. A word is primitive or derivative — simple or compound. 

26. A primitive word is one that is not formed from any 
other word in the language : as, watch. 

27. A derivative word is one that is formed from a simpler 
word: as, watchful. 

28. A compound word is the union of simple words, either 
joined by the hyphen (-), or permanently consolidated: as, 
watch-chain, watchman. 

Most of the compound words are consolidated and written as simple 
words. 

29. When an added syllable is placed before a radical word, 
it is called a prefix ; as, r^-prove : but when placed after it, it 
is called a suffix : as, fear-/w/. The same may be said of the 
compounds : as, ?na?2- servant, IsLud-lord. 

30. Words are divided into the following eight classes, called 

parts of speech. 

Noun. Advehb. 

Pronoun. Preposition. 

Verb. Conjunction. 

Adjective. Interjection. 

[Lesson 2.] 23. Of what does etymology treat ? 24. W^hat are words ? 25. A 
word is in what state ? 26. What is a primitive word 1 Example. 27. A derivative 
word? Example. 28. A compound word ? Examples. 29. What is an added sylla. 
ble, before a radical word, called 1 Example. After a radical, what is it called 1 Ejc- 
ample. 30. Into how many classes are words divided ? Name the parts of SDeecli. 



ETYMOLOGY. 13 

31. The parts of speech are distinguished by the manner 
of their application. The order in which they are explained 
in this work, is presented in the following 

• SYNOPSIS. 

NOUN AND PRONOUN. 
82. A Noun is a word that expresses the name of an object. 

33. A Pronoun is a word that supplies the place of a noun. 

34. The name of everything you can see or speak of, is a noun; but 
I, thou and you, he, she, and it, are the principal pronouns. 

35. The name teacher is a noun, but J is a pronoun. 

The name pupil is a noun, but thou or you is a pronoun. 
The name James is a noun, but the word he is a pronoun. 
The name Mary is a noun, but the word she is a pronoun. 
The name sheep is a noun, but the word it is a pronoun. 

NOUNS. PRONOUNS. 

Teacher I 

Pupil E*^°« „ . . 

^ I ou I Nominative 
James or boy .... He \ case. 
Mary or girl -. . . . She 
Deer or Sheep .... It 

When he had found the sheep he laid it upon his shoulders. 

Here the word sheep is a noun, for it expresses the name of a thing; 
but the word it is a pronoun, because it supplies the place of the noun 
sheep. If we do not use the pronoun, we must repeat the noun: as, 
When he had found the sheep he laid the sheep upon his shoulders. But 
it is more elegant to use the pronoun to supply the place of the noun. 

VERB, 

36. A Yerb is a word that expresses an act or a state : as^ 
Sheep 7mn : You are pupils. 



31. How are the parts of speech distinguished 1 i%\. 32. What is a noun ? 33. A. 
pronoun ? 34. What is the name of everything you can see or speak of? What are 
the principal pronouns 1 35. What part of speech is the word teacher ? II Pupil ? 
Thou or you 1 James % He ? Mary % She 1 Sheep? It 1 Name a number of nouns. 
Name six pronouns that are in the nominative case. 

[Lesson 3.] 36. What is a verb ? Examples. 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

37. Hei<3 the verb run expresses an act introduced by the noun sheep. 
The verb are expresses a state introduced by the pronoun you. 

38. Except are, any verb may be used with I, tbou, or he, 
before it : as, I learn, thou learnest, he learns. I speah, thou 
speaJcest, be speaks. I fear, thou fear est, be fears. I am, tbou 
art, be is, sbe is, or it is. 

We say, I teach, or teachers teach: You learn, or children learn : 
They advance, or pupils advance. 

INFLECTION OF VERBS — CONTINUED. 

Intransitive Verbs. Tranmtive Verbs. pronouns. 

I am, . . shine, tell, . . love, ) tJ^ ] Ohiective 
Thou art, . . shinest, tellest, . . lovest, } ^.^^ [UOjective 
He is, . . shines. tells. . . loves. ) J^"^ ^^^^' 

39. Verbs may be easily distinguished from other parts of speech by 
inflecting them, for words that cannot be inflected with the pronouns I, 
thou, and he, before them, cannot be used as verbs. We may say, I 
shine, thou shinest, he shines; but not, I moon, thou moonest, he moons. 
We say, I sing, thou singest, he sings; but not, I song, thou songest, he 
songs. Hence shine and sing are verbs, but moon and song are nouns. 

EXERCISE 9. 

Distinguish the nouns and verbs in the following list: 

Model. — Broom is a noun because it expresses the name of an object. 

Sweep is a verb because it expresses an act : thus, I sweep, thou svveepest, he sweeps. 

Broom, sweep, star, twinhle, clock, strike, burnt wood, lovest, heart, opens, 
trunk, river, fiows. 

40. Sucb verbs as requii^e the objective ease (38) after tbem 
to complete the sense, are called transitive verbs : as, He tells 
me, I love tbee ; I tell bim, be admires ber. 



37. What does the verb run express? — The verb are ? 38. How may any verb be 
used ? — Inflect the verb learn with the pronouns I, thou, and he, before it. — Inflect the 
verb Speak, Fear, Am, Shine, Tell, Love. Name four pronouns in the objective case. 39. 
Hov/ may verbs be distinguished from other parts of speech 1 — Is a word that cannot be 
inflected, called a verb 1 — Inflect the following words, and tell whether they are verbs or 
not: Shine, Moon, Sing, Song. <>^>. Exercise 9. 40. What are transitive verbs? 
Examples. 



SYNOPSIS. 15 

We do not say, he tells /, I love thou: I tell he, he admires she: for 
pronouns in the nominative form (35), are not placed as the objective case 
after transitive verbs. (See pronouns in the nominative and in the ob- 
jective case.) 

41. A noun or pronoun in the nominative case, represents the produ- 
cer of the act or state, and usually comes before the verb : as, / teach. 
Thou art. But the objective case represents the receiver of the action, 
and usually comes after the verb: as, I teach him. Thou art teaching 
me. 

42. Such verbs as do not require the objective case after 
them, are called intransitive verbs : as, I come, I ^o, I fall, I 
rise, I shine. 

We do not say, I come thee: You go me: I fall him: You rise her: 
for these verbs being intransitive, are not used to govern the objective 
case. 

ADJECTIVE. 

43. An adjective is a word used to point out or describe a 
substantive: (noun or pronoun:) as, That sheep, those sheep, 
small sheep, lar^e sheep, white sheep, black sheep. Thai young 
sheep is gentle. Those old sheep are tame. The deer is wild 
— it is swift. 

44. Any limiting or describing word may be used as an adjective : 
thus, in the following examples, each italic word is used to point out or 
describe the noun sheep — they are therefore all adjectives. 

45. Limiting. — This, these, one, two, a, any, soijie, ) 
Describing. — Good, bad, high, low, short, heavy, dull,) 

Place other limiting and describing words before the noun sheep, and 
call tliem adjectives. 

ADVERB. 

46. An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjec- 
tive, or another adverb : as, Sheep run sloioly. Deer run 
swiftly. Men act bravely. Very brave men act very bravely. 

41. What does a noun or pronoun in the nominative case represent ? — Does the nomina- 
tive case usually come before the verb, or after it 1 — What does the objective case repre- 
sent? — Does the objective case come before, or after the verb 7 42. What verbs are 
call:d intransitive 1 — Examples. 

[Lesson 4.] 43. What is an adjective 1 — Examples. 44. WTiat word may be used 
as an adjective 1 45. Name some limiting adjectives.— Some describing adjectives, 
46. What is an adverb ?-=Examples. 

2 



16 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 




Mverl. 


Mjective. JSToim. Verb. Jldverh. 


Mverh, 


very 


wise men act most 


wisely. 


very 


discreet women act very 


discreetly. 



47. In the first formulary example, the adverb wisely modifies the verb 
act: i. e.j it tells how they act. The adverb very modifies the adjective 
wise^ and the adverb most modifies the adverb wisely 

48. The adverb commonly modifies the sense of verbs, by 
telling bow, wben, or where the action is performed : as, 

Ladies walk how ? gracefully, hnsMy^ nimhly, sloioly. 

They walk lohen? now, then, often, alivays, never. 

They walk where ? here, there, anywhere, everywhere, nowhere. 

Remark i . Adjectives will make sense by placing nouns after them: 
thus, One sheep; Red deer; Brave men. 

Remark ii. Adverbs will commonly make sense by placing them 
after verbs; as, Men act how, when, or where? bravely, now, here. 

EXEE CISE 1 0. 

Distinguish the adjectives and adverbs in the following list: 

One, once, strongly, every, two, twice, three, thrice. 
Hastily, often, four, fourthly, dark, nicely. 

PREPOSITION. 

49. A Preposition connects words and shows the relation 
between them ; Examples : 

Thou goest fror}i me. 
I come to thee. 
She walks loith him. 



Is wise an adjective or an adverb ?— Give its adverbial form.— Give an example ia 
which both forms are used.— Is discreet an adjective or an adverb ?— Give its adverbial 
form. — Give an example in which both forms are used. i_yO- 
47. In the example ' V,ry inse men act most wiseUj,' how does the adverb wisely modify 
the verb act .?— What does the adverb very modify ?— The adverb most ? 48. How do 
adverbs modify the sense of verbs 1-Name some adverbs of manner.— Some of time 
Some of place.-What limiting or describing wor.^s will make sense with nouns after 
them ?— Examples.— What usually follow verbs ?— Examples.— Exercise 10. 

[Lesson 5.] 49. Define a preposition.-Examples.-In these, examples, 'do yon find 
the pronouns after prepositions, to be in the nominative, or in the objective case 1 



SYNOPSIS. 



IT 



50. The preposition governs the objective case, and will not admit the 
nominative case after it. We never say from /, to thou^ with he, about 
she; but the pronouns following prepositions, must be in the objective 
case : as, with him, about her, ^^c. 

51. The transitive verb (41,) and preposition are the only parts of 
speech that require the objective case after them. 

52. Remark. — Prepositions and transitive verbs, alike, govern the 
objective case : as, Above me; love me. But one distinguishable differ- 
ence between these two parts of speech is, that verbs may be inflected 
with I, thou, and he, before them, but prepositions may not; thus, we 
say, I love, thou lovest, he loves; but not, I above, thou abovest, he 
aboves. Hence, love is a verb, but above is a preposition. 

EXERCISE 11. 

Distinguish the verbs and prepositions in the following list: 
Model. — I aiford, thou affordest, he affords : Afford is a verb. 

I after, thou afterest, he afters : Jlfter is a preposition. 

Ohj. 

}me. 
thee, 
him. 
her. 

CONJUNCTION. 

53. A Conjunction is used to connect words or sentences : 

as, You and I. You rise or fall. You rise, hit be falls. 

Here the conjunction and connects the two pronouns you and I: Or 
connects the two verbs rise and fall: and but connects the two sen- 
tences,* You rise — he falls. 

54. Though some conjunctions, like prepositions, are used to connect 
words, yet there is a marked difference in the functions of these two parts 
of speech. Prepositions govern the objective case (50), and will not ad- 
mit the nominative after them, as fellow's: The brave men, with he, re- 
turned. This sentence is improper, because the pronoun he is of the 
nominative case, and it should be him in the objective case after the pre- 
position with. But conjunctions do not govern the case that follows 
them : Hence we say, They and he returned : They or he returiied : As 

*■ Every sentence contains a nominative case and a verb. 



Afford, 


for. 


around, 


in, 


behold. 


beneath. 


After, 


forewarn. 


arouse. 


into, 


below. 


beseech. 


Down, 


about, 


at. 


of, 


on. 


over. 


Drown, 


abuse, 


attend, 


offend, 


honor. 


overtake, 



50. Will a preposition admit the nominative case after it?— Correct the fol!o\vin<T ex- 
pressions: From I; To thou; With he; About she. 51. What two parts of speech re- 
quire the objective case after them? 52. Mention one distincjuishable difference be- 
tween the transitive verb and the preposition.— Examples.— What part of speech is 
above ?-Love ?-Exercise 11. iy^y 53. Define a conjunction.-Exainples. 54. Do 
conjunctions, like prepositions, govern the objective case ?— Examples. 



Connect sentences only. 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

brave men as he returned : Braver men than he returned. If the objec- 
tive case follows a conjunction, it is governed by some other word and 
not by the conjunction : as, She returned with him and me. 

55. LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

And, I 

Or, I 

_. ' J> Connect words or sentences. 

Than, j 

As, i 

Because, 
But, 

If, 

Though, 
Unless, 

exercise12. 

Distinguish prepositions and conjunctions in the following list : 

At, and, or, over, than, toward, as, above, before, 
Because, of, if, through, though, unless, unto. 

INTERJECTION. 

56. An Interjection is an exclamatory word, used to express 
some passion or emotion of the speaker : as, Oh ! ah ! alas 1 
fie ! fudge ! away ! 

EXERCISE 13. 

Distinguish the parts of speech in the following list : 

James, I, man, he, she, it, shine, come, go, good, large. 
That, forty, briskly, swiftly, now, then, to, at, over, and. 
Or, than, as. O, fie! little boys, you are very rude and idle on 
that bench. 

To THE Pupil — In the foregoing Synopsis, you have the grammar in miniature. 
All the parts of speech have been presented with some of their distinguishable char- 
acteristics. Every word in the language belongs to one of these classes, but how to 
arrange and modify words, according to established rules, you have yet to learn. The 
parts of speech, in the same order, shall now be further explained to you in a compen- 
dious manner, and if you will persevere in the study, I promise you, your way shall be 
smooth, and your task comparatively light. 

.55. Name four conjunctions that may connject either words or sentences.— Five that 
connect sentences only.-— Exercise 12. 56. What is an inteqection 1— Examples.— 
Exercise 13. 



COMPENDIUM. 

NOUNS. 

67. A Noun is a word that expresses the name of an object: 
as, Moon, boy, John. 

If objects had no names by which to call them, we could not speak of 
anything, and the power of speech would be useless. If the moon, for 
instance, had no name, we could designate her, as the dumb do, only by 
means of marking and pointing. 

58. Everything that we can see or speak of, has its name; and th© 
name by which it is called, is denominated in grammar, a noun. Look 
around you and call the names of a few things, and remember that every 
name you can mention is a noun. The names house, door, window, 
floor, table, chair, book, map, William, Mary, etc., are all nouns. 

59. The object that you see, is not itself a noun, but it is only the name 
of the object that we call noun; and it is the name, and not the thing 
itself, that we employ in language, as the symbol of an idea. 

We here describe a circle (0). Now you may give this figure any 
name you please, and whatever name you give it, is a noun. You may 
call it a circle, a ring, a hoop, a belt; but these are only several nouns 
expressing the names of the figure. 

60. Nouns are of two kinds ; common and proper. 

61. A common noun is a general name, common to things 
of a sort, class, or species : as, Hiver, mountain, town. 

62. A proper noun is the particular name of an individual 

object, and not the name of any class or species of things: as, 

Ohio, Andes, Paris, 

Objects may be represented in language by any number of names, both 
general and appropriate. 

[Lesson 6.3 57. What is a noun ? — Examples. 58. What do you call the name of 
everything that you can see or speak of? — Mention several nouns. 59. Is it the ob- 
ject itself, or only the name of the object that we call noun "? 60. What are the two 
kinds of nouns ? 61. What is a common noun I—Examples, 62. A propei nounT— 
Examples, 

(19) 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

63. An object has a general name in common with other things of the 
same sort: as, Boy, river. The noun boy is a name common to all boys, 
and it is therefore called a common noun; but it is necessary that every 
boy should have also a particular — an appropriate name to distinguish 
him from other boys : as, John. John is a particular name, and not the 
name of any class of objects, and is therefore called a proper noun. River 
is the common name for all large streams of water, and it is therefore 
called a common noun; but Ohio is the particular name of one of the 
rivers, and it is therefore proper. Country is a common noun, but Amer- 
ica is a proper noun. City is a common noun, but Cincinnati is a proper 
noun. 

EXERCISE 14. 

Distinguish between the common and proper nouns in the following 
list: 

Model. Eliza is a proper noun because it is a particular name. 
Lady is a common noun because it is a general name. 

Eliza, lady, Iamb, Charles, pupil, merchant, man, George. 
Children, Solomon, king, Jerusalem, Lexington, law, telegraph. 
Madison, state, Virginia, knife, wheat, ashes, Sarah, sorrow. 
Julia, Jehovah, planet, water, music, Lucy Ellen, James Monroe* 

Mention some other nouns that are called common. Some that are proper. 
To THE Teacher. — Should the teacher now think it best to exercise his pupils 
more thoroughly on the different classes of nouns, he can easily turn to the Recapitu- 
lation (364), where they are more fully explained. But I would suggest the propriety 
of confining them to this compend of etymology, until they liave gone through it, for 
then they will be better prepared for the recapitulation and critical remarks. A criti- 
cal exposition of the noun, at this stage of the pupil's progress, might tend to perplex 
and embarrass him. When he has studied the elementary principles of etymology, he 
will be better prepared to understand critically the more complex properties and depen- 
dencies of every part of speech. 
It is better to repeat often, than to anticipate anything in grammar. 

64. Nouns are represented by 

PRONOUNS. 

65. A pronoun is a word that supplies the place of a noun: 
as, James is studious and he will excel. 

* Several proper names together, applied to one person, may be taken as one com- 
plex noun: as, Dr. Benjamin Franklin, Gen. George Rogers Clark. 

63. Why is the name boy called a common noun ? — Why is the name John called 
a proper noun? — WTiy is river called a common noun 1 — Why is Ohio called proper? 
What kind of noun is country? — America? — city? — Cincinnati?:— Exercise 14. 4K)» 
64. Nouns are represented by what? 65. What is a pronoun? — Example 



ETYMOLOGY. 21 

66. In this example he is not the name of a person, but it supplies the 
place of the noun James, and it is therefore called d^ pronoun. 

67. The term pronoun is derived from the Latin word pronomen, pro 
meaning for, and nomen, a name (noun). So pronoun means for a noun. 

68. A pronoun is generally used to avoid repeating the noun. If we 
were to say James is studious and James will excel, we would have a dis- 
agreeable repetition of the noun James;, and it is to avoid a disagreeable 
repetition of the noun, that we employ a pronoun. 

69. The necessity of the pronoun may be more clearly seen by the 
following example: thus, Julia walked into Julia's room, and when Julia 
had taken off Julia's bonnet, Julia took Julia's seat. Here, instead of 
making so disagreeable a repetition of the noun Julia, we should use pro- 
nouns and say, Julia walked into her room, and when she had taken off 
her bonnet she took her seat. 

70. In speaking, instead of calling my own name, I employ 
the pronoun I, to supply the place of my name, as speaker, or 
first person in discourse. 

I employ thou or you to represent your name, as the one 
spoken to, or second person in discourse. 

I employ he, she, or it, to represent the name of the one spo- 
ken of, or third person in discourse. 

71. The following list may serve to show the principal pronouns in 
their diiFerent attributes of person, number, gender, and case. 

72. These attributes are sometimes called accidents. 

PRONOUNS IN THEIR DIFFERENT ATTRIBUTES. 

Singular JVo. Plural J\/'o. 

First person I, We, ^ 

Second person . Thou You, | ^r^^^^^^^^^, 

rMasculine gender . . He, ) j» ^^^^ 

Third person, ^Feminine gender . . She,> They, 

(Neuter gender . . . It, ) 



66. In this example, why is he called a pronoun? 67. From what is the term pronoun 
derived? — What does pronoun mean? 68. Why is a pronoun used? 69. Give an ex- 
ample showing the necessity of pronouns, 

[Lesson 7.] 70. In speaking, why do you employ the pronoun I? — Thon or You? — 
He, she, or it? 71. What are the attributes of pronouns? 72. What are these attri- 
butes sometimes called? 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

E XER CI S E 15. 
Observe the preceding list of pronouns, and go through as follows, with the 
etymological parsing. 

The pronoun 
J is first person, singular number, and nominative case. 

Thou second person, singular number, and nominative case. 

He third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nom- 
inative case. 

She third person, singular number, feminine gender, and nomi- 
native case. 

It third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nomina- 
tive case. 

We. first person, plural number, and nominative case. 

You second person, plural number, and nominative case. 

They third person, plural number, and nominative case. 

THE SUBSTANTIVE.* 

73. *^* Both to nouns and pronouns, belong the attributes of person, 
number, gender, and case. In treating of these attributes, the term sub- 
stantive is conveniently employed to imply both nouns and pronouns: 
thus, substantives have person, number, gender, and case. This expres- 
sion means, that both nouns and pronouns have these properties. When 
the noun alone is referred to, the term noun is always used; and when 
the pronoun alone is referred to, the term pronoun is used; but when both 
nouns and pronouns are alike referred to, the term substantive is em- 
ployed. If this use of the term substantive, is not in all its applications 
entirely philosophical, it is at least, more brief and convenient than the 
expression of both terras, noun and pronoun. The term is used in this 
work for the sake of brevity; and the usage is not without authority. 
Dr. Bullions uses the term substantive, where both nouns and pronouns 
are implied^ 

PERSONS. 

74. Person is a modification that distinguishes substantiyes 
in regard to the one speaking, the one spoken to, and that 
which is spoken of: as, / tell you, he learns well. 

* The first and most important element is the substantive. The term substantive is 
here used to denote the noun or any word which takes the place of the noun, — S. S. 
Greene. 

Exercise 15. | )0. 73. What belong to both nouns and pronouns? — "What term is 
nsed in this work to imply both nouns and pronouns'? — "When the noun alone is referred 
to, what term is used? — When the pronoun alone is referred to, what term is used? — 
WTien both nouns and pronouns are referred to, what tenn is used? 74. What is per- 
fon? — Examples 



ETYMOLOGY. 23 

75 / is called first person, because it represents the speaker: 2/0M, second 
person, because it represents the one spoken to; and /le, third person, be- 
cause it represents the one spoken of. 

76. In grammar, there are three per sobs ; first, second, and 
third. 

77. The first person denotes the speaker: as, / /oAw, saw 
these things. 

78. The second person denotes the one spoken to: as, 
Thou, God, seest me. 

79. The third person denotes that which is spoken of: as, 
He loved Mary and Martha and Lazarus. 

80. The pronouns / and we are alvva3^s of the first person; but nouns 
are seldom made in the first person. They may be called first person 
when they are used immediately after the first personal pronouns, to 
identify or explain them: as, I, the governor^ make this proclamation. — 
We, the people, of the United States. 

81. Nouns are of the second person only when they are addressed-: 
as, Hear, O, king. 

82. Nouns are commonly of the third person; for they usually denote 
objects which are spoken of : as, The king reigns. 

EXERCISE 16. 
Distinguish the person of the following substantives: 

I, thou, you, we, she, they, it, ye, he. We, the people. Jerusalem! 
"YeneY'dh]e men! you have come down to us from a former ^^^en- 

erationy " I, John J. Crittenden, governor of the commonwealth 

of Kentucky." 
** The saint, the father, and the husband, prays." 

NUMBERS. 

83. Number is a modifiication that distinguishes substantives 
in regard to unity and plurality : as, One hooh, two boohs, 

75. Why is /called first person? — Why is you, second person? — Why is he, third 
person? 76. How many persons are there? — Name them. 77. What does the first 
person denote? — Example. 78. The second person? — J^xample. 79. The third per- 
son? — Exam^ple. 80. In what person are / and we.? — When may nouns be called first 
person? — Examples. 81. When are nouns of the second person? — Example. 82. Why 
are noutis commonly of the third person? — Example. — Exercise 16. 

[Lessons.] 83. What is number?-— Examples, 

3 



24 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



84. There are two numbers — the Singular and the Plural. 

85. The singular number denotes but one : as, / am a man, 

86. The plural number denotes more than one : as, We are 
men. You are pupils. 

87. Remark i . — You^ though always plural in form, is frequently 
singular in sense: i. e., it may stand for a noun in the singular number,, 
as well as for a noun in the plural : as, My friend, you are a pupil. My 
friends, you all are pupils. 

88. Remark ii. — Thou is used chiefly in solemn or grave style, 
and is always singular, having ye for its plural : as, O, thou hypocrite I 
O, ye hypocrites! 

89. The plural number of nouns, is commonly formed by annexing 
s or €S to the singular : thus, singular, boy; plural, boys : singular, hero; 
plural, heroes. 



i.}ingular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural, 


Farmer, 


. . Farmers. 


Box, . . 


. . Boxes. 


King, 


. . Kings. 


Kiss, . . 


. . Kisses. 


Christian, . 


. . Christians. 


Dish, . . 


. . Dishes. 


Critic, 


. . Critics. 


Brush, 


. . Brushes. 


Winter, . 


. Winters. 


Negro, 


. . Negroes. 


Goblet, 


. Goblets. 


Mulatto, . 


. . Mulattoes 



EXERCISE 17. 
Distinguish the number of each of the following substantives: 

He, we, they, it, thou, you, I, she, ye, box, goblets. 
Teli the plural of 

Kiss, brush, critic, negro. 
Tell the singular of 

Mulattoes, kings, farmers. Christians. 



GENDERS. 

90. Gender is a modification that distinguishes substantives, 
principally in regard to sex : as, He, she, it. 

84. How many numbers? — Name them. 85. What does the singular number denote? 
— Example. 86. The plural? — Examples. 87. Is you singular or plural in form? — ^Is 
it always plural in sense? — Example-. 88. In what style is thou used? — In what num- ~ 
ber is tAoM.? — What is its corresponding plural? — Example. 4>^> 89. How is the plu- 
ral number of nouns commonly formed? — Examples, — Exercise 17. 90. What is gen- 
der? — Examples. 



ETYMOLOGY. 25 

91. There are three genders — the Masculine, Feminine, and 
Neuter. 

92. The masculine gender distinguishes an object of the 
male sex : as, He^ man. 

93. The feminine gender distinguishes an object of the 
female sex : as, She, woman. 

94. The neuter gender usually distinguishes an object of no 
sex : as, It, paper, 

95. The term neuter is sometimes applied to the name of animals 
when the sex is unknown or disregarded: as, bird, deer. 

96. Neuter may properly signify a gender that is neither masculine 
nor feminine;* thus, the words hird and deer have no form to distinguish 
sex, and hence these nouns are properly neither masculine nor feminine 
gender. 

97. In grammar, sex and gender are not precisely the same thing. 
There are in nature, only two sexes, but in grammar, there are three 

genders. 

98. Sex, as male and female, belongs to animals; but the term gender, 
as masculine, feminine, and neuter, relates to the words called substan- 
tives; thus, to the creatures man and woman, we apply sex, not gender; 
but to the words man and woman, we technically apply gender, not sex. 

99. No one will say that he has a friend of the masculine gender; but 
of the male sex, or female sex. But in parsing the name of the person, 
we say, the word James, for instance, is masculine gender; the word Ellens 
is feminine gender. The name book is called neuter gender, because it is 
neither masculine nor feminine — for neuter means neither. 

100. Remember that the term sex, with its qualifying words, male and 
female, applies to living things; bat the term gender, with its qualifying 
words, masculine, feminine, and neuter, relates only to words, the repre- 
sentatives of things. 

* " This gender is called neuter, a word which in its proper acceptation denotes that 
which is neither masculine nor feminine." — Picket. 

" A noun of the neuter gender, then, means a noun which is neither of the masculine 
gender, nor of the feminine gender." — Ingersoll. 

91. How many genders? — Name them. 92. What does the masculine gender dis- 
tinguish? — Examples. 93. The feminine? — Examples. 94. The neuter? — Examples. 
95. To what is the term neuter sometimes applied? — Examples. 96. What may neuter 
properly signify? — Examples. 

[Lesson 9.] 97. Are sex and gender, as used in grammar, precisely the same? 98. 
To what does sex belong? — To what does gender relate? — Examples, 99. Would you 
say, the name James is male sex, or masculine gender? — Is the name Ellen female sex, 
or feminine gender? — Why is book called neuter gender? — What does neuter mean? 
100. To what does the term sex apply? — To what does the term gender relate? 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

101. Some nouns, as man, woma7i, boy, girl, father, mother, husband, 
wife, son, daughter, brother, sister, uncle, aunt, nephew, niece, etc., have a 
determinate gender that distinguishes sex; but some others, as person, pa- 
rent, child, relation, cousin, neighbor, friend, etc., have no form to deter- 
mine sex, and the sex of the object, can be distinguished in language, 
only by adding a vi^ord of determinate gender: as, he, she, it : thus, I 
called to my friend and he heard me. I assisted my cousin and she thanked 
me. 

*^* If you tell me simply that your cousin is with you now, I cannot know by this 
expression, the sex of that cousin, for the noun cousin has no determinate gender; but 
if you tell me your cousin is with you now, and she is sick, I understand that the one 
spoken of is of the female sex, and the noun cousin may be called feminine gender; 
for the pronoun sAe that represents it, has a determinate gender, being always fem- 
inine. 

102. EuLE I. — When the substantive is applicable to adult 
persons of both sexes, and not expressly applied to females, it is 
represented in the masculine gender in j)reference to the femi- 
nine : as, My best friend is he that tells me of my faults- — 
NOT, she, 

103. Rule ii. — When the substantive is applicable to 
young children or dumb animals of both sexes, the sex being 
unknown or disregarded, the substantive may be represented 
in the neuter gender : as, The infant sleeps, but it will soon 
awake. He shot at the deer and missed it. " The nightingale 
sings most sweetly, when it sings in the night. 

Masculine. Feminine. J^cuter. 

104. Buck, .... doe, deer.* 

Ram, ewe, sheep. 

Peacock, peahen, peafowl. 

* Nouns applicable to both sexes are called by some authors common gender ; but 
neither Mun-ay nor Goold Brown will admit that there is any such gender belonging to 
the language. The latter says, " with us, it is plainly a solecism." 

If according to some authors the noun deer is common gender, the pronoun it that 
represents it mu.-;t be common gender also; for pronouns agree with the nouns for which 

101. Mention some nouns that distinguish sex. — Some that do not distinguish sex.— 
When the noun has no form to indicate the sex, how can the sex of the object be dis- 
tinguished? — Examples. 102. Recite E,ule i. — Example, Rule ii. — Examples. 

[Lesson 10.] 104. In what gender is Buckl— Doe ?~Deer?— Ram?— Ewel— Sheep? 
Peacock? — Peahen? — Peafowl? 



ETYMOLOGY. 27 

105. Gender properly has respect only to the third person 
singular: as, He, she, and it. 

106. The pronouns /, thou, we, ye or you, and tJiey, always have the 
same form whether they represent males, females, or things inanimate. 
Gender need have no respect to these words, for they are not represented 
by he, she, or it, third person singular. 

107. \* Gender, as applied in English, is necessary as a grammatical term, only 
to prevent the misapplicaton of he, she, it, and their variations, third person singular: 
thus, We say of a boy, he is industrious — not, she: of a girl, she is discreet — not, he: 
and of a book, it is soiled — not, he nor she. But a plural noun cannot be improperly 
represented by a pronoun in gender, unless in number also; for we say of men, they 
are candid; of women, they are loquacious; of knives, they are sharp. Were we to 
sav we have knives and he is sharp, the pronoun he would improperly represent knives 
in number as well as in gender. Make the number of the pronoun agree with that of 
the plural noun, and there can be no misapplication of gender: thus, They are sharp. 

The members of a plural noun must be taken separately or distributively, in the third 
person singular, before the gender alone of the pronoun can improperly represent them: 
as. 

One (of the boys) learns his lesson — not, her lesson. 

Each (of the girls) performs her duty — not, his duty. 

Neither (of the windows) has its curtain — not, his nor her curtain. 

Hence, it is not important that the term gender be applied, in parsing, to any sub- 
stantives but such as are of the third person singular. 

108. When a noun of multitude is used in the third person 
singular, we call it neuter gender : as. The assemhhj was re- 
markable for its size. 

But when the noun expresses a plural idea, it has no dis» 
tinction of gender : as, The assemUy were leaving for their 
homes. 



they stand in gender as well as in person and number. But it is admitted by all that 
the pronoun it is neuter gender : then deer must be neuter also. 

" In speaking of living creatures of which we do not know the gender we consider 
them to be of the neuter." — Pue. 



105. To what person and number does gender have respect?— Examples. 106. 
Wliy is it unnecessary to apply gender to the fxrst and second persons, and to 
the third person plural? 107. Why is gender necessary as a grammatical term?— Ex- 
amples. — Can a plural noun be improperly represented by a pronoun in gender, unless 
in number also? — Examples. 108. A-Vhat gender has a noun of multitude, third per- 
son singular?— Example.— When the noun expresses a plural idea is there any distino- 
tion of gender?— Example. 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EX ERCIS E 18. 
Distinguish the gender of the following substantives: 

He, she, it, father, mother, infant, book, friend, him, acquaintance. 
Deer, brother, sister, sheep, paper, meeting, assembly, bird, flock. 
Do /, ihoUf we J ye, you, they and knives have gender applied to them? 

CASES. 

109. Case is a modification tliat distinguishes substantives 
in regard to the relation which they have to other words : as, 
I, my, me. — I request my pupils to hear me. 

110. / is in the nominative case; my, in the possessive case; and mc, 
in the objective case. 

111. There are three cases — the Nominative, Possessive, 
and Objective. 

112. Nominative means naming; and hence, the nominative case is 
distinguished as the subject that introduces the verb. 

The possessive case is distinguished as the possessor of something. 
The objective case is distinguished as the object of a transitive verb or 
a preposition. 

113. Nominative Case. — A substantive is in the nominative 
case, when it simply introduces its own act"^ or state: as, 
/strike. We are. 

114. The nominative case is commonly known as the actor or doer. 
There could be no acting without an actor — no doing without a doer — no 
striking without a striker. The verb strike, representing an action, does 
not, in language, exist independently; but it must be produced by a sub- 
ject. In the example above, the nominative / is the subject of the verb 
strike. The verb are, expressing a state of being, can have, in language, 
no independent existence; but it must be introduced by some subject — 
some noun or pronoun in the nominative case: as, We are, you are, they 
are, men are. 

* It is not literally true that words can act, but by a figure of speech, we call the 
nominative the actor, and the verb the action. 

Exercise 18. C>0 109. What is case ?— Examples. 110. In what case is I ?— 
My? — Me? 111. How many cases? — Name them. 112. What does nominative mean? 
— How is the nominative distinguished? — The possessive? — The objective? 113* 
When is a substantive in the nominative case? — Examples. 114. How is the nomina- 
tive case commonly known? — Can there be any action without an actor? — Can the 
verb are exist without a nominative to introduce it?-=-Place several nominatives before 
are. 



ETYMOLOGY. 29 

115. The noniinatwe case is commonly the svbjeci or producer of the 

«^^- ... ,1 

116. Possessive Case.— A substantive is m the possessive 

ease wben it is represented as tlie possessor of some following 
noun : as, Woman s modesty, her heart, his hand. 

117. Objective Case.— A substantive is in the objective 
case when it is the object of a transitive verb or preposition: 
as, I strike thee; I strike you; I strike him; I strike her; I 
strike it; or I strike at thee ; I strike at you ; I walk with him ; 
I walk with her ; I turn from it. 

Here the pronouns thee, you, hkn, her, and it, are all in the objective 
case. In the first examples they receive the striking— the action produ- 
ced by the nominative /; but in the second, they are the objects of the 
relation expressed by the prepositions at, with, and from. You strike me: 
You strike us: You strike them. Here the pronouns me, us, and them, are 
all in the objective case, the objects of the action produced by the nom- 
inative you. ,111 

118. It would appear, even to the most illiterate, an intolerable vulgar- 
ism, to use the objective case for the nominative, and the nominative for 
the objective, and say. Me strikes ^e— instead of, He strikes me. 

119. The nominative usually comes before the verb and the objective 

after it. 

DECLENSION. 

120. The declension of a pronoun signifies its changes on 
account of case. 

You may now decline the pronouns in all their attributes of person, number, gender, 

and case. 

DECLENSlOxV OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

mm. Poss. Ohj. JVom. Poss. Ohj, 

1st person I, my, me. We, our,. ... us. 

2d per. Thou,, .thy, thee. Ye or you,your,. . . you. 

rmasc. He, his, him.^ 

3d. )fem. She,. . . her,. . . . .her. j They, . . . their,. . . them. 

(neut. It, its, it. ) 



115. In what case is the subject or producer of a verb? 

rLESSON 11.] 116. When is a substantive in the possessive case?-Examples 117. 
When is a substantive in the objective easel-Examples -In the ^-^ -^-Pj^^^f 
part of speech governs the objective pronouns thee, you, him her, and ^^^-^h^^ g^J' 
ems them in the second example?-In the last example what gov-erns the objee ve 
pronouns me, us, and them? 118. What is wrong in the expression, Me strikes he^ 119. 
How do the nominative and the objective usually stand in relation to the verb, 120, 
What is meant by the declension of a pronoun? <KV 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

DECLENSION OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
Kom. Poss. Obj. 

Who, whose, whom. 

Which, whose, which. 

That, that. 

EXER CI SE 19. 

Commit to memory the foregoing declension and rehearse it hi the fol- 
lowing order: 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS — First Person. 
Singnlar: Nominative I, possessive my, objective me; 
Plural : Nominative we, possessive our, objective us. 

Second Person 
Singular: Nominative thou, possessive thy, objective thee; 
Plural : Nominative ye or you, possessive your, objective you. 

Third Person 
Singular, masculine : Nominative he, possessive his, objective him. 

Third Person 
Singular, feminine : Nominative she, possessive her, objective her. 

Third Person 
Singular, Neuter : Nominative it, possessive its, objective it. 

Third Person 
Plural : Nominative they, possessive their, objective them. 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Nominative who, possessive whose, objective whom. 
Nominative which, possessive whose, objective which. 
Nominative that, objective that. 

121. Those of the first list, are called personal pronouns, because they 
have a form that distinguishes their person. 

122. Those in the second list, icho, which, and that, are called relative 
pronouns, because they so closely relate to the antecedent word which 
they represent, that different clauses are usually connected by them. 
These relatives might properly be called connective pronouns; Examples: 

We punish the man who disobeys the law. 
We punish the man that disobeys the law. 
We dread the calamity ichich threatens us. 
We dread the calamity that threatens us. 
In the first sentence, the relative who relates to man; and the noun 
man is called the antecedent of the relative who. 

In the second, the relative that also relates to its antecedent man. 

Exercise 19. 

[Lesson 12.3 121. Why are those in the first list called personal pronouns? 1£2, 
Which are the relative pronouns? — \ATiy are these called relatives? — Examples. 



ETYMOLOGY. 31 

In the third and fourth, which and that relate, each to its antecedent 
calamity. 

123. The term antecedent simply means going before; from the Latin, 
ante, before, and cedo, to go. 

124. Remark i. IF /to and that relate to intelligent beings. Which 
and that relate to inanimate things, to dumb animals, and also to very 
young children; for infants, like brutes, are supposed to be devoid of rea- 
son and reflection. 

125. Rem. i i . The relative pronouns who which and that have no vari- 
ation to distinguish person, number, or gender; but they must have the 
person, number, and gender, of their antecedents; Examples: 

1. I, who am teaching, am heard. 

2. Thou, who art hearing, art taught. 

3. He, that is hearing, is taught. 

Who in the first example, is first person singular, because its antecedent I is first 
person singular. 

Who in the second example, is second person singular, because thou is. 

That, in the third example, is third person singular, masculine, because he is. 

Each of the foregoing sentences is composed of two clauses ; one absolute, the 
other, relative or subordinate. 

In the absolute clause, I is nominative to the verb am heard. In the relative clause, 
who is nominative to am teaching. And so with the other two. 

126. Rem. hi. Which and that have no variation to distinguish case; 
but whose is sometimes used as the possessive case of which: thus, we 
speak of a calamity whose consequences threaten us; i. e., the conse- 
quences of which threaten us: — Of a religion, whose origin is divine: i. e., 
the origin of which is divine. 

<■'■ The fruit 
Of that forbidden tree whose mortal taste 
Brought death into the world and all our woe." 

127. Rem. i v . That is a relative when it can be changed into 
who or which: as. The Lord that (who) knoweth all things. The days 
that (which) are past are gone forever. 

Remarks on the Gases of JSvuns. 

128. The case of a pronoun may generally be known by its form; but 
a noun has the same orthographical form in all the cases. 

123. What does the term antecedent mean? — From what'is the term derived? 124. 
To what do who and that relate? — Which and that? — Why does which apply to infants? 
125. Hovv^ do you distinguish the person, number, and gender of relative pronouns? — 
Examples. 126. Do ichich and that have any variation to distinguish case? — What 
word is sometimes used as the possessive case of which?- — Examples. 127. When is 
^Aat a relative?— Examples. i%,^. 128. How may the case of a pronoun generally 
be known?— Is the case of a noun known by its orthographical form? 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

129. Remark i. Poss. — A noun in the possessive case is distin- 
guished by an apostrophe (') after it: as, Childrens' books. It commonly 
has both the apostrophe and the apostrophic s: as, 

"The plowbcy's whistle and the milkmaid's song," 

130. Rem . ii. In order to avoid a concurrence of hissing sounds 
that would maive the pronunciation difficult, the apostrophic s is frequently 
omitted. It may be omitted after a termination of a hissing sound, as 
that of s or z: as. For goodness' sake. For conscience' sake. Archim- 
edes' screw. 

We use the expression Bullions' Grammar — not, Bullions's; yet, at the same time, 
we would not say, James' novels; for James, in the possessive, may be pronounced as 
if written Jamesis: as, James's novels; Phillips's speeches. 

When the apostrophic s will coalesce, it maybe pronounced in the same syllable; as, 
John's; but when it will not coalesce it adds a syllable: as, Thomas's — pronounced as 
if written Thomasis. 

131. Rem. hi. Neither the personal nor relative pronouns have 
the apostrophe annexed: as. Every tree is known by its fruit — not, iVs 
fruit. It was neither ours, yours, nor theirs — not, our^s, your's nor 
theirs. 

'132. Rem. iv. Norn, and Obj. — A noun, in the nominative case, 
is distinguished from one in the objective case, only by the sense; thus, 
in the sentence, "The snake hit the child,^^ the noun snake is in the nomi- 
native case — the doer of the action, and the noun child is in the objective 
case — the receiver of the action bit; but in the sentence, '^The child bit 
the snake,^^ child is in the nominative case, and snake, the objective case 
— the object of bit. 

exercise 20 — Declension of Nouns. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

J\fom. Poss. Obj. J\'o?rt. Pass. Obj. 

Man, man's man. Men, men's men. 

Prince, .... Prince's. . . . Prince. Princes,. . . .Princes'. . . .Princes 
James, .... James's .... James. Jameses, . . Jameses'. . . Jameses 

Girl, girl's girl. Girls, girls' girls. 

Book, book's book. books, books' books. 



129. How is a noun in the possessive case distinguished? — Example. — Give examples 
of the apostrophic 5. 130. Why is the apostrophic s frequently omitted? — After what 
terminations is it omitted? — Examples. 131. Have pronouns the apostrophe annexed? 
132. How is a noun in the nominative case distinguished from one in the objective? 
Examples. 

[Lesson 13.] Exercise 20. 



ETYMOLOGY. 33 

EXERCISE 21 ETYMOLOGICAL PARSING. 

Man^s a common noun, third person, singular number, masculine 

gender, and possessive case. 
MerCs a common noun, third person, plural number, and posses- 
sive case. 
Parse man and men in both the nominative and the objective case. 
Parse Prince and Princes ^ just as you parse man and men. 
Jameses .... .a proper noun, third person singular, masculine gender, and 

possessive case. 
Parse James and Jameses in the nominative and in the objective case. 
GirVs, . , .: . .a common noun, third person singular, feminine gender, 
and possessive case. 
Parse girl and girls in the nominative and the objective case. 
Book^s ..... .a common noun, third person, singular number, neuter 

gender, and possessive case. 
Parse book and books in the nominative and the objective case. 

exercise22. 

Turn back to the declension of personal pronouns and parse them all. 
According to the model, you v^ill first name the person; secondly, the 
number; thirdly the gender; (of the third person singular); and fourthly 
the case. 

Model. — I is first person singular, and nominative case. My, first person singular, 
and possessive case. Me, first person singular, and objective case, — and so on. 

133. Rem. The apostrophic s does not belong to the orthography of 
the word, but is used, when convenient, merely to give the possessive 
sign or sound. 

exercise 23. 

Correct the following 

Imp r oper Constructions. 

Mens wages. Davies's mathematics. 

Womens' virtues. Charles' reign. 

That boys capacities. Henry Hawkins his book. 

Those girl's diversions. It's toy. 

EXERCISE 24. 

In what case is who? whose? whom? 

Exercise 21. 4X>. Exercise 22. 

tLESSON 14.3 133. Does the apostrophic s belong to the orthography of a word?— 
For what is it usedl— Exercise 23.— Exercise 24. i}^}. 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In what person, number, and case, is I? my? your? us? we? our? 
their? they? you? thy? ye? me? thee? thou? 

In what person, number, gender and case is he? she? it? its? his? 
him? her? Sarah's? Benjamin's? infant's? bonnet? books? 

What plural pronoun corresponds in person and case with I? thou? he, 
she, and it? my? thy? his, her, and its? Me? thee? him, her, and it? 

What singular corresponds in person and case with we? our? us? ye? 
your? you? What three, with they? their? them? 

VERBS. 

134. A Yerb is a word tliat expresses an act or a state : as, 
I strike ; I am struck. 

135. Here strike expresses the nominative's act. Am struck expresses 
the nominative's state of being acted upon. 

136. All words may be used as verbs that will express a correct idea 
with a subject or nominative before them: as, 

I eat, drink, sleep, sit, rise, fall, fly; or, 

Thou ridest, walkest, smilest, weepest, mournest; or, 

He reads, writes, eats, drinks, runs, leaps, dies. 

137. Remember that all verbs, except are, may be used with I, thou, 
or he, before them; hence, we say, I come, thou comest, he comes; but 
not, I home, thou homest, he homes. 

EXERCISE 25. 
As I call over the following list, tell which words are verbs and which are not. 
Sing, song, sleep, night, town, frown, up, upset, over, overturn, mourn, 
morning, river, ever, reach, rich, love, heart, guide, good, from, form, 
find, kind, bind, straw, draw. 

138. The term verb is derived from the Latin verbum, signifying word 
— the principal word in a sentence. 

139. Every sentence contains a verb, and without a verb, expressed or 
understood, no perfect sentence can exist. 

VOICES. 

140. Voice in grammar refers to tlie relation wHcli the prin- 
cipal verb has to its subject or nominative. 

134. What is a verb? — Examples. 135. What does strike express? — Am struck? 
136. What words may be used as verbs? — Examples. 137. How may all verbs be 
used? — Examples. — Exercise 25. 

[Lesson 15.] 138. From what is the term verb derived? 139. Can a sentence ex* 
ist without a verb expressed or understood? 140. To what does voice refer? 



ETYMOLOGY. 35 

141. There are two voices: the Active and the Passive: as, 

I strike; I am struclc. 

When I say, ' I strike,^ I assert that I produce the action ; but when I 
say, * / am struck,^ I assert that I receive tlie action. 

142. Active Yoice.— A Verb is called active when the do- 
ing or being, expressed by the principal verb, is produced by 
the subject of the verb; as, I strike, I abuse, I wound, I fear, 
Hove, I resemble, I have, I exist. 

Here the subject / is represented as the producer of these actions. 

143. Passive Yoice. — A Verb is called passive when the 
act or effect of the principal verb is received by the subject of 
the verb: as, I am struck,'^ I am ivounded, I am abused by him. 

Here the nominative / is not represented as the producer of 'the actions 
struck, abused, and wounded ; but as a passive subject, it receives these 
actions ; and hence, am struck, am abused, and am wounded, are called 
passive verbs. 

144. The term passive is derived from a Latin word, which signifies to 
suffer or endure. 

145. Rem. — An active verb expresses the subject's act or state of be- 
ing; but a passive verb expresses the subject's state of being acted upon. 

146. An active verb is either Transitive or Intransitive. 

147. Transitive. — An active verb is transitive when the act 
or effect passes over from the subject to a substantive in the 
objective case : as, I strike them, I love him, I see her, I have 
it, I resemble my father. 

148. Intransitive. — jin active verb is intransitive when the 
act or effect is confined to the subject, without passing over to 
an objective case : as, I walk, run, sit, stand, come, go, rise, 
fall, am, appear. 

* Struck is the principal verb, and am is merely an auxiliary or helping verb. 

141. How many voices 1 — Name them. — Examples. 142. When is a verb in the 
active voice ? — Examples. 143. When is a verb in the passive voice ? — Examples. 
144. From what is the term passive derived 1 145. What does an active verb ex- 
press ? — What a passive verb ? i%^ 146. l^Hiat denominations has the active verb ? 
147. When is an active verb transitive ?— Examples. 148, When is an active verb 
intransitive ? — Examples, 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



EXERCISE 26. 

After each of the transitive verbs, change the nominative into the objective that 
corresponds with it in person and number : thus, I love thee. 

Tin 2^ TO'per Constructions, 

I love thou. We remember they. 

Thou lovest I. You remember we. 

He pleases she. They honor ye. 

She pleases he. Ye honor who ? 

Before each of the intransitive verbs, change the objective into the nominative that 
corresponds with it in person and number: thus, /sleep. 

Me sleep. Us abide. 

Thee livest. Them weep. 

Him groans. Whom prospers ? 
Her breathes. 

Remarks on the Transitive^ Intransitive, and Passive Verbs. 

149. The same verb is sometimes used transitively, and sometimes in- 
transitively : thus, v.'iien I simply say, I walk, I run, — walk and run are 
intransitive verbs ; for I walk nothing, I run nothing. But when I say, 
I walk my horse, I run my horse, — walk and run are transitive verbs ter- 
minating upon the noun horse in the objective case ; for I walk some- 
thing, I run something. 

In the sentence, ' / believe him,^ believe is transitive ; but in the sen- 
tence, * / believe in him,'' believe is an intransitive verb. 

150. In the passive voice, the act or effect does not pass over from the 
nominative to the objective case, because the nominative to a passive verb 
is itself the receiver of the action, and the objective case is not required 
after the passive verb for that purpose; — We do not say, I am struckhmi, 

151. The transitive verb requires the substantive after it to be in the 
objective case; and hence we say the transitive verb governs the objective 
case : as, I have struck him; but the intransitive and passive verbs are not 
governing verbs. 

DENOMINATIONS OF VERBS. 

152. Verbs are divided into three principal denominations, 
viz: Transitive, Intransitive, and Passive. Examples: 

Exercise 26. 

[Lesson 16.] 149. Show how the same verb may be used transitively and intransi- 
tively. 350. Why does not the action of a passive verb pass over to an objective case 1 
151. What verb governs the objective case ? — Do the intransitive and passive verbs 
govern the objective case 1 152. What are the three principal denominations of verbs? 
Give an exan)ple of a verb in each denomination. * 



ETYMOLOGY. 37 

i Transitive : as, I struck him. 
Ac.ive. J Intransitive: as, I struck at him. 
Passive : as, He was struck by me. 

153. Observation 1. — The passive voice is only another modifi- 
cation of the transitive verb : thus, I struck him, is equal to, Heicas struck 
by me. But inaf?much as one governs the objective case, and the other 
does not, we give them different denominations. 

154. Oes. 2.- — The terms transitive and intransitive, as employed in 
this work, are peculiar to the active voice; and, therefore, when these 
terms are used in parsing, it may always be understood, whether named 
or not, that the verb is in the active voice. 

155. Obs. 3. — A transitive verb may be changed into the passive 
voice, simply by using the object of the transitive verb as nominative to 
the passive. Examples : 

Transitive. Passive. 

He strikes me " I am struck by him. 

He sees me ' I am seen by him. 
I hear him . He is heard by me 

I love him zr=z= He is loved by me. 

156. Obs . 4, — Nov/ recollect that the nominative to a transitive verb 
does an action to another; but the nominative to a passive verb receives 
an action from another. 

Am struck, is a passive verb, because when I say, I am struck, I mean 
something strikes me. 

Am seen, is a passive verb, because something sees me. 
Am good, is not a passive verb, because nothing goods me ! 
Am young, is not a passive verb, because nothing youngs me I 

157. Obs. 5.— When we do not wish to name the active subject, as, 
' James loves Mary,' we may employ the verb in the passive voice, simply 
by making the object the passive subject : thus, we may say, Mary is 
loved, without telling who loves her. 

exercise 27> 

Tell the denominntion of each of the foUovving verbs, whether transitive, intransi- 
tive, or passive : 

I remember him. She reflects. Mary is loved. Boys swim. 
They float on the water. Rivers float rafts. Ships sail. 
They are driven by the wind. You are taught. We agree. 
I am obeyed. Good people love God. They are sincere. 
They are esteemed. Birds fly. Boys fly the kite. 

153. Wliy dowe give transitive and passive verbs different denominations 1 154. In 
what voice are transitive and intransitive verbs 1 155. How may a transitive verb be 
•hanged into the passive voice ? — Examples. CKI 15^. What distinction between 
the nominative to a transitive verb and the nominative to a passive verb ?— -Examples, 
L57. Mention a convenience in the use of a passive verb. — Exercise 27. 



38 ENGLISH GRAMIVL\Pw. 

PERSONAL VARIATIONS OR INFLECTIONS. 

158. A personal form or variation is a peculiar form or end- 
ing of a verb to agree with a nominative of some particular 
person : as, I am, thou art, he is. 

159. Am is a personal form, for it pJwayg requires a nominative of tiie 
first person singular; as, I am: I who am teaching, am understood. 

160. The verb that ends its variation in t, st, or est, has a personal 
form, for its nominative is always second person singular: as, (grave style) 
Thou art, thou comest, i\\ou goest: Thou who hearest understandest. 

161. The present verb that ends its variations s, es, ih, or eth, has a 
personal form, for its nominative is always third person singular: as, 

(Common style.) He is, he comes, he goes: He who hears, understands. 
(Grave style.) He cometh, he go eth: He who heareth, understandeth. 

162. Am is the only first personal form in the language. 

163. The personal inflection to t is the only second personal 
variation. 

164. The personal inflection to s or th, is the only third per- 
sonal variation. 

165. Person and Number. — A verb with any of the three 
personal forms is called singiilar, because its nominative must 
be singular ; but a verb without any of the personal forms is 
usually called plural, because it has a form to agree with the 
plural. 

166. Remark. — A verb is commonly said to have the person and 
number of its nominative; but it is not important to apply person to any 
verbs but such as have personal, forms. 

EXERCI SE 28. 
Distinguish the person and number of each of the following verbs: 

I am sad. Thou art holy. He forgives. He sinneth not. She is 
sincere. I am instructed. Thou hearest me. She understands me. 



[Lesson 17.] 158. What is a personal form of the verb'? — Examples. 159. WTiy 
is am called a personal form?— Examples. 160. Why is the verb that is varied to t, 
said to have a personal form?— Examples. 161. Wliy is the present verb that is A^aried 
to 5 or th said to have a personal form?— Examples. 162. What is the only first per- 
sonal form? 163. What is the only second personal variation? 164. What is the only 
third personal variation? 165. What verbs are called singular?— Why?— Wli at verbs 
are called plural?— Why? 166. Is it important to apply person to verbs without per^ 
sonal forms? — Exercise 28. <>.<> 



ETYMOLOGY. 39 

167. Inflection. — Inflection means variation. In conjuga- 
tion, the verb is inflected or varied to agree with the different 
persons and numbers of its nominative. 

EXERCISE 29. 

Inflect orally the following verbs: 

Model. — First person, I am, second person, thou art, third person, he is; or, 

First person, I know, second person, thou knowest, third person, he knows 
or knoweth. 

1st. per. I am, have, do, teach, tell lead, go, 
2d per. Thou art, hast, doest, teachest, tellest, leadest, goest. 
has, does, teaches, tells, leads, goes 

3d per. He is, or or or or or or 

hath. doeth. teacheth. telleth.leadeth. goeth 
By the same model inflect the following verbs: 

Begin, bring, break, cling, creep, draw, drink, lend, make. 

Ride, run, send, shake, sing, sit, sleep, smite, swim, wear, work, write. 

168. Remark .—Plural nominatives, as well as the singular nomina- 
tive /, may be prefixed to all verbs of the first or radical form except am: 
thus, vje, you, or they, begin: Men begin. We say in the third person, 
One begins, but two or more begin. 

EXERCISE 3 0. 

Prefix suitable nominatives to the following verbs: 

Begin, goest, runs, am, eats, forget, smileth, speak, begins. 

Dealeth, feed, sellest, reap, drinketh, send, writes, seemeth. 
Change each verb to agree with its nominative, in the following 

Imjprojyer Constructions. ^ 

I begins. She understandest. 

Thou knoweth. It seem. 

They weeps. We speaketh. 

VERBS OF BEING. — {Neuter Verbs). 

169. Verbs of being are those of tbe active voice that ex- 
press simple existence : as, Am, hecome, seem, feel, look, appear; 
thus, I am sad; you have become sick; you seem sick; you 
look sick ; you appear sick. 

167. What does inflection mean? — Why is the verb inflected? — Exercise 29. 168. 
All verbs of the first form, except am, may have what nominatives? — Examples. — 
Exercise 30. 

[Lesson 18.1 169. What are verbs of being?— Name them. —Examples. 

4 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

These all intimate that you are sick — that such is your state of being. 

170. Am, commonly called the verb to he or neuter* verb, is very ir- 
regular in its conjugation, and is an exception to all other verbs. 

171. Was and were are branches derived from the root am, and each 
form requires a distinct rule. 

172. Am agrees only with tlie first person singular, and is 
called a singular verb. 

173. Was agrees only with the first and third person singu- 
lar, and is called a singular verb. 

174. Are and were are plural ; i. e,, they have a plural nom- 
inative, but they have no respect to the persons. 

PRESENT. PAST. 

Singular. Plural. Singular, Plural. 

175. 1st per. I am,. . . .We are, j I was, we were J 

2d per. Thou art. You are>> nmo. Thou wast, you were > ^^ ^^' 
3d per. He is. . . They are; He was. . . .they were) 

176. Rem. — Were (not was) is frequently used in a hypothesis with- 
out any reference to past time; then its nominative may be either singu- 
lar or plural : as, If the sun were extinguished, the moon would give no 
light. 

177. Hypothesis is something supposed that does not exist : the exam- 
ple implies that the sun is not extinguished. 

* Am and other verbs of being, are called by some authors neuter verbs, because they 
express neither action nor passion; neuter meaning neither the one nor the other. But 
every verb must be either of the active or passive voice; and the term neuter, as ap- 
plied to a class of verbs in contradistinction to the active and the passive voice, ap- 
pears to be objectionable. 

To be in the active voice, the verb does not necessarily imply action; for we find 
that many verbs of the active voice express no action at all; as, resemble, have. owUi 
and the like. Resemble expresses really neither action nor passion, but it cannot be 
neuter, for it is used as a transitive verb, and must be in the active voice : as. She re- 
semhles him. I have her profile. 

It is easy to tell whether a verb is in the active or passive voice : but it is not always 
so easy to determine whether it really expresses action or not — nor is it important to 
know. 

170. What can you say of .^?w? 171. Was and 7cere? 172. With what nominative 
does am agree? — Of what number is am? 173. With vrhat does 7cas agree?— Of w^hat 
number is 7cas? 174. Of what number are are and zcere? — Have they any person? 
175. Inflect am in the present and past time, in the different persons and numbers. 
< K)« 1~6. How is ?cere frequently used?— In such usage is its nominative always 
plural? — Example. 177. '\\Ti at is hypothesis?. 



ETYMOLOGY. 41 

Hyjp oth etical . 

Singular. Plural. 

If I were. If we were. 

If thou wert. If you were. 

If he were. If they vyere. 

EXERCIS E 31 . 
Prefix a suitable nominative to each verb of being in the following 

Imiy r op 6 7* C oiistricction s . 

We am. You art. They is. It are. You was. You wast. 
She were. If he wert. 

Give each of the following verbs a form to agree with its nominative in person and 
number. 

I are, thou is, he are. They is, we was. I were, thou was, we am. 

In the following hypothesis, was is improper: 

He is not so strong as SaiupsoD, but if he was, he would be stronger 
than ail other men! 

Observation .—Having presented all the numeral forms and per- 
sonal variations, we will now proceed to give the tense variations and 
combinations from 

EADICAL VERBS. 

178. The first form of the verb, is the root from which 
many branches grow, and is called the radical form : as, I go 
now — NOT, goes, goest, nor gone. 

Any individual word that will make sense and express a cor- 
rect idea between the pronoun I and the adverb now, is a root 
or radical verb : as, I go now, I see now, I hear now, I tell 
now, I love now, I give now, I begin now, I live now, I am 
now. But went, saw, heard, told, etc., are tense variations, 
that are formed from their respective roots. 

TENSES. 

179. Tense is a modification of the verb to agree with time. 

Inflect were, hypothetically. — Exercise 31. 178. What is the root or radical form 
of the verb? — Between what two words will the radical make sense? — Examples. 
[Lesson 19.3 179. What is tense? 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

180. There is time present, time past, and time future. Now is 
present, yesterday is past, to-morrow is future;— Examples : I drive now, 
I drove yesterday, I have driven to-day, I will drive to-morrow. 

FORMULA. 
Present, Past. Perfect. Future. 

X)rive, drove, have driven, will drive. 

181. Drive is the present and radical form of the verb. 

182. Drove is the past or preterit form from the root drive. 

183. Driven is the perfect form from drive. 

184. The future form is the same as the radical, but it has some auxili- 
ary, as will or shall, before it. 

185. Rem. Am is the only root that cannot be used in the future tense. 
We cannot say will am, but, will be. Formerly, be was used in the indica- 
tive present : as. We be true men— Bible. 

We will here partially conjugate the verbs drive, do, have, and am, by 
arranging together their 

186. PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present Tense. Preterit Tense. Perfect or Passive Participle. 

I drive, I drove, driven. 

" do, " did,. done. 

" have, " had, had. 

" am, ** was, been. 

187. I can say, I drive in the present time, I drove in the past time, but 
not / driven; because the perfect form is used as a perfect or passive par- 
ticiple, which can have no nominative, without an auxiliary verb to help it. 

188. We may prefix to the perfect participle, the auxiliary have or am 
in any of the preceding variations, and then the combination, being an 
entire verb, will be entitled to a nominative case : as, 

(Active Voice). I have driven or had driven. 

(^Passive). I am driven, was driven, or have been driven. 

Observation . — Before we give a definition of the tenses, we will 
define those forms of the verb called participles and auxiliaries. 

180. Mention three divisions of time, — Three periods. — Examples. 181. Drive is 
what forml 182. Drove? 183. Driven? 184. The future? 185. What radical verb 
is never used in the future tense? — Example. — How was &e formerly used? — Example. 
186. Give the present, the preterit, and perfect form of drive. — Of do. — Of have. — 
Of am. 187. Why can we not prefix a nominative to driven, done, etc.? 188. What 
auxiliary may be prefixed to the perfect participle? — ■\^Tien an auxiliary is prefixed 
to the perfect participle, what is the combination called? — Will the entire verb be en- 
titled to a nominative?— Give examples in each voice. < K> 



ETYMOLOGY. 43 

PARTICIPLES. 

189. A Participle is only a part of the verb. It has this 
function of the personal verb, viz : it is either transitive, in- 
transitive, or passive; but it has neither mood, (261,) tense, 
nor a nominative case. 

190. There is a distinguishable difference between the perfect or pas- 
sive participle, and what is called the perfect tense of the verb, as the fol- 
lowing examples will show; 

I have a brother driven to insanity. 
I HAVE DRIVEN a brother to insanity. 

In the first example, driven is a participle — the perfect form of the verb without an 
auxiliary; but in the second, have driven is a perfect transitive verb. 

The following sentences convey very different ideas: 
We have a world created from nothing. 
We have created a world from nothing. 

In the first of these examples have is a present transitive verb, governing the object- 
ive «corZ^, and created; is a participle having no nominative; but in the second, Afli?tf 
created is a perfect transitive verb, governing the objective, world. 

We may use created in the preterit tense also: as, God created the 
world. 

191. Remark i. The preterit and perfect are often formed alike, 
but the perfect tense has an auxiliary, while the same form in the preterit 
tense has none: as, (Preterit) He created. (Perfect) He has created. 

192. Rem. ii . When the perfect form has both the auxiliar)?^ have, 
and a nominative case prefixed, it is called the perfect tense: as. He has 
driven; but when it has neither, it is called a perfect participle: as, driven. 

193. Rem. hi. The perfect participle may admit of either of the 
two auxiliaries, having or being/, and still be called a participle: thus, hav- 
ing driven is an active participle, and being driven is a passive participle. 

194. Rem. i v . When the perfect participle is active, it will make 
sense with having before it; and when it is passive, it will make sense 
with being before it: as, 

189. What is a participle"? — What function of the personal verb does it have? — Does 
it have either mood, tense, or nominative? 190. Is there any diflference between the 
perfect participle and the perfect tense of the verb? — Examples. — What is driven? 
— Have driven? — Give other examples. What is created? — Have created? — Example 
of created in the preterit tense. 191. What is the difference between the preterit and 
the perfect tense? — Examples. 192. Wlien is the perfect form of the verb called the 
perfect tense? — Example. — When a perfect participle? — Example. 193. What auxili- 
ary may the perfect participle have without changing it from a participle? — Examples. 
194. What auxiliary will make sense before the perfect active participle? — Before 
the passive? 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

"Time gone. The righteous saved, the wicked damnedf 
And God's eternal government approved.''^ — PoUok. 

We may say, *Time having gone,' becaiisethe perfect participle gone, is active. 
We may say, being saved, being damned, and being approved, because these parti- 
ciples are passive. 

195. Participles are of three kinds ; Imperfect, Perfect, and 
Pluperfect ; as, Driving, driven, having driven. 

196. The terms, imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect, are applied to par- 
ticiples merely to distinguish the act or state as continuing, or as completed. 

197. Driving expresses an incomplete or unfinished action, and is there- 
fore called an imperfect participle. 

198. Driven expresses a complete or finished action, and is called a 
PERFECT participle. 

199. Having driven expresses an act completed before some other act 
or state with which it stands connected, and is called a pluperfect parti- 
ciple. 

200. The terms imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect, sre also used to denote three tenses 
of personal verbs; (227:) but as applied to participles they are used only to designate 
the kind of participle without any special regard to tense. The participles have no va- 
riety of forms to agree with any special period of timCj but may be made to agree with 
any time whatever: as, I see him driving or driven, I saw him driving or driven, I have 
seen him driving or driven, I will see him driving or driven, etc. 

Every participle has one of the three -names, imperfect, perfect, or pluperfect; to- 
gether with its verbal denomination, transitive, intransitive or passive. 

201. Imperfect. — The imperfect participle expresses an 
act or a state continuing, and is formed bj annexing ing to the 
radical : as, breaking, driving, doing, having, being :^ thus, 
you saw them breaking him. 

Breaking is an imperfect transitive participle, passing ovei from its subject thevi to 
the objective Mm. 

202. Perfect or Passive. — The perfect participle expresses 
an act or a state completed : as, broken, driven, done, had, been : 
thus, I had him broken.. 



* The termination ing is not annexed to the radical cm, but to be, its future form- 
as, being. 



[Lesson 20.] 195. How many kinds of participles?— Xame them.— Examples. 196. 
Why are the terms imperfect, perfect and pluperfect, applied to participles?— 197. 
"Why is driving called an imperfect participle? 193. T^Hiy is drivcji, a perfect participle? 
199. Wliat is having driven called?— 200. Do these terms designate the tense of the 
participle, or only the kind without regard to tense?— Participles agree vvith what time? 
Examples, i %}. 201. What does the imperfect participle express?— How formed?— 
Examples. 202. AVhat does the perfect participle expiess?— Examples. 



ETYMOLOGY. 45 

203. When the perfect participle is formed from a transitive 
root, it is commonly called a passive participle ; because the 
action it expresses, is received by a passive subject: as, I saw 
him driven, beaten, and broken. 

In the sentence, *J heJield the moon risen in majesty,'' the perfect parti- 
ciple risen is not a passive but an active participle; for the subject, moon, 
is the producer of the action risen, and not the receiver of it. 

204. The passive participle is always perfect, (in form,) but the perfect 
participle is not always passive. It is passive only when formed from a 
transitive root, its subject being the receiver of the action. 

Risen is a perfect intransitive participle, referring to its subject moon. 
Driven is a passive participle, referring to its subject him. 

205. The subject of the participle, may be in either the nominative or 
objective case: as, i/e arose singing; I heard a tune sung. 

The participle can have no nominative of its own. 

206. Both the imperfect and passive participles are changed to entire 
personal verbs, by prefixing to them the auxiliary verb to he; as, I am dri- 
ving, I am. driven. Thou art beating, thou art beaten. He is breaking, 
he is broken. 

207. Pluperfect.''' — The pluperfect participle expresses an 
act or a state completed before some other act or state with 
which it stands connected. It is formed by placing having 
auxiliary to the perfect participle : as, Having hroJcen the 
horse, I sold him. 

This intimates that the breaking was previous to the selling. 

* In imitation of Goold Brown, I use the epithet pluperfect participle. The term is 
short and sufficiently explicit, and I know of no one for this form of the participle, 
that is more appropriate. But it appears that no term has ever been used to designate 
this participle, that is entirely free from objection. Some, because it is composed of 
two participles, call it the compound perfect participle; and others, the compound par- 
ticiple. But on the same principle, l)cing driving, having been driving-, being driven, 
and having been driven, might be called compound participles; but these cannot all be 
designated by the same epithet. Each of them may conveniently have its owti term 
of distinction, as is shovvu in the conjugation of the yexhtell, (282,) where each degi'ee 
of conjugation has its imperfect and pluperfect participles. 

203. When is a perfect participle called a passive participle? — Why is it called pas- 
sive? — Examples. — Is the perfect participle risen, active or passive? — Vv'hy is it not pas- 
sive? 204. What form has the passive participle? — When is the perfect participle 
passive? 205. In what case is the subject of the participle? — Examples. — Does the 
participle have any nominative? 206. How are the imperfect and passive participles 
changed to entire verbs? — Examples. 

[Lesson 21.] 207. What does the pluperfect participle express? — How formed?— 
Examples. 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

208. The pluperfect participle is never changed to a personal verb, for 
the verb to be canuot be auxiliary to it. We never say, I amhamng gorier 
I am having been. 

In the formula below, the three participles are rehearsed as follows: 
Model. Participles: Imperfect, driving; pluperfect, having driven; perfect, driven. 

FORMULA. 
Imperfect. Pluperfect. Perfect. 

209. Driving, Having driven, Driven. 

Observation. — It is thonglit best to name the pluperfect participle in the second 
place in the formula instead of the third, because the student can generally tell what 
form the perfect should assume by placing the auxiliary having before it : as. Being, 
having been, been. No one would be apt to say, having was; therefore he would not 
call was a perfect participle. 

EXER CI S E 3 2. 
Rehearse the imperfect, pluperfect, and perfect participles, from the following roots: 
Do, have, am, beat, break, teach, tell, lead, love, go. 

AUXILIARY YEEBS. 

210. Auxiliary verbs are those that are used to assist the 
principal verb in its conjugation : as, do, have, will, am. 

211. Do can be auxiliary only to the radical form. It is sometimes 
used to make the expression more emphatic, and sometimes to ask a ques- 
tion: as, I do teach you; do you hear me? 

In grave style, do, as an auxiliary, has dost in the second person singular, and doth, 
in the third: as. Thou dost teach him; doth he not hear? 

212. Will is also used auxiliaiy to the radical form, as a sign of the fu- 
ture tense: as, I will teach you; will you hear me? 

213. Ham is auxiliary to the perfect participle only: as, ^Ihave taught 
you;' but the verb to be is auxiliary both to the imperfect and perfect par- 
ticiple: as, I am teaching; I am taught. 

Foi^mulary Examples. 

Present. Preterit. Present-perfect. Future. 

. . (I do teach,. . .did teach,. . , .have taupfht, will teach. 

Active <_ - . , , , , .111 T . 

(lam teachmgjwas teaching, have been teaching,wili be teaching. 

Passive (I am taught, was taught,, .have been taught, .will be taught. 

208. Is the pluperfect ever changed to an entire personal verb? — Wh^ not? — Exam- 
ple. 209. Rehearse the three participles from drive.— Exercise 32. |3^)> 210. What 
are auxiliary verbs? — Examples. 211. To what form is do auxiliary? — Why is it used"? 
— Examples. How is it formed in grave style? — Examples. 212. To what form is 
will auxiliary? — WTiat tense does it indicate? — Examples. 213. To what is have aux- 
iliary? — Example. — To what is the verb to be auxiliaiy? — Examples. 



F resent form. 


Preterit form. 


Do 


did 


Have 


had 


^Wil! 


would 


1 


Shall 


should 




May 


might 


Q 


Can 


COlllil 


'^ Must 


must 




have 


Am, 


was or 






had 



ETYMOLOGY. 47 

214. Have, In all its variations, is the auxiliary that precedes, more 
naturally, the perfect active participle; but the verb to he is the auxiliary 
that immediately precedes the imperfect and passive participles. 

LIST OF AUXILIARIES. 

PRINCIPAL VERB. 

teach. 

• • • taught. 



.teach, -=-- have taught 



Cteaching 
been, or \ be, — have been < or 
would ) (taught. 

215. Do and ham, when auxiliaries, are used only in their present and 
preterit forms; hence, we do not say, *We have done taught;' 'We have 
done done the work;' 'If you had have done i\\Q work, etc. (Expunge 
the words in italic.; But do and have, when principal verbs, may be used 
in all the tenses: as, If you have done the v/ork you shall have the re- 
ward. 

216. Will, shall, may, can, must, and their preterits, are called defec- 
tive verbs or defective auxiliaries, because the present and preterit are th© 
only forms they ever assume. They never have the third personal ter- 
mination in s or th, and must is not varied to agree with the second per- 
son singular: as, I must teach, thou must teach, he must teach. 

217. Will, when a principal verb, is used in all the tenses; and then it 
has for its regular preterit tense, vnlled and not would: as I will, I willed, 
I have willed my estate. 

"What she icills to do or say, 
Seems wisest." 

218. Am., whether a principal or an auxiliary verb, is used in all iti 
forms, and it always limits the tense: as, 

(Principal,) I have been a writer, I will be a teacher. 
(Auxiliary,) I have been writing, I will be teaching. 

214. What does the auxiliary have precede? — The verb to be? 

[Lesson 22.] 215. As auxiliaries, what forn:is have do and have? — As principal 
verbs, what forms have they? — Examples. 216. Which are called defective auxilia- 
ries? — Why are they called defective? 2y. As a principal verb, in what tenses is will 
used?— -What then is its regular preterit? — Examples. 218. As an auxiliary, is am en» 
entitled to all its forms? — Which indicates the tense, the auxiliary verb to &#, or the 
participle and verb to be? i %^, 

6 



48 EjSGLISh grammar. 

In the first examples, have been is present-perfect tense, and wi'ZZ be, future tense. 
In the second examples, have been writing is present-perfect tense, and will be wrir 
ting, future tense. 

The tense is limited to the auxiliary verb to be, and not applied to the 
principal or participial form. 

CONJUGATION. 

219. The conjugation of a verb is the regular combination 
and arrangement of its several moods, tenses, persons, num- 
bers, and participles. 

DEGREES IN CONJUGATION. 

220. There are three degrees in the conjugation of most 
verbs — -first, second, and third, 

221. The first degree is the conjugation of the root: as, I 
lead, I led, I have led, I had led, etc. 

222. The second degree is the conjugation of the imperfect 
participle : as, I am leading, I was leading, I have been lead- 
ng, I had been leading, etc. 

223. The third degree is the conjugation of the perfect or 
:)assive participle : as, I am led, I was led, I have been led, I 
lad been led, etc. 

Note. — As the above three forms are taken separately through all the 
noods, tenses, persons, numbers, and participles, we frequently speak of 
?ach as a distinct conjugation: thus, lead is first conjugation; am leading, 
second conjugation; and am led, third conjugation. 

224. Remark. The conjugation of a perfect participle from a tran- 
iitive root, is called third conjugation, passive voice: as, I am led; but the 
^conjugation of a perfect participle from an intransitive root, is called third 
conjugation, active voice; as, I am come, I am arisen. 

Am come is in the third degree, but not in the passive voice, for the 
nominative / is not the receiver of the action, but the producer of it. 
/ 

219. What is the conjugation of a verb? 220. How many degrees in conjugation? — 
Name them. 221. What is the fir^^t degree?— Example?. 222. The second degree?— 
Examples. 223. The third degree? — Examples. 224. What participle is conjugated 
in the third degree to form the passive voice? — Example. When a perfect participle 
from an intransitive verh is conjugated, is the voice active or passive? — Examples. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



49 



225. There are a few intransitive verbs conjugated in the third degree. 
The principal ones are co7ne, go, rise, fall, and flee. 

"And she is gone — thy joys are fled." 
Observation. — We will now conjugate the transitive verb lead, through all the 
tenses, but at present only in the first person. 

226. Model .*^*LEAD — First Degree: 

I lead or do lead now; I led or did lead then, I have or had led; 
I will or would lead, I will or would have led. 
' Participle: Imperfect, leading; pluperfect, having led; perfect, led. 

AM LEADING— -Seco?i(Z Degree: 
I am leading now, I was leading then, I have or had been leading; 
I will or would be leading, I will or would have been leading. 

AM LED — Third degree, passive voice: 
I am led now, 1 was led then, I have or had been led; 
/ will or would be led, I will or would have been led. 
Conjugate lead, in the formula, precisely by the model. 



Present. Preterit. 

[lead.] 

I lead ) lead 



FORMULA. 

Perfect. 



Future. 



Perfect, 



or 
do lead 



did lead, 
Leading, having led, 

[am leading.] 



have ) will 

or > led, or J>Iead, — have led. 
had S would , 



.led. 



1 am, 

[am led.] 
I am, 



have ^ will "1 

or J- been, or J> be, — have been 
had, J would J 



have "1 will 

or ^been, or 
had, I would 



be, — have been -< '^ 



EXERCISE 33, 



In what tense is 

Lead or do lead? 
Led or did lead? 



Ans. 



Present. 
Preterit. 



225. Mention some verbs that are conjugated actively in all the degrees. 226. Con- 
jugate lead in the first person only. 

[Lesson 23.] In what degree of conjugation is lead? — ^m leading? — Mm led?— 
Exercise 33. 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Have led? Ans. Present-perfect. 

Had led? " Preter-perfect. 

Will lead? " Future. 

Will have led? '^ Future-perfect. 

Would lead? " Imperfect. 

Would have led? " Pluperfect. 

227. There are eight tenses, viz: The Present, the Prete- 
rit, the Present-perfect, the Preter-perfect, the Future, the 
Future-perfect, the Imperfect, and the Pluperfect. 

228. The tenses of the second and third degrees in conjugation, pre- 
cisely correspond to those of the first; but in these degrees, it is only the 
auxiliary verb to he that indicates the tense, and not the principal, or par- 
ticipial form; thus, am leading and am led are known to be present tense, 
because am indicates the present. 

exercise34. 
In what tenss are 



1 



Am leading^ 

and > Present. 

Am led? 



Was leadings 

and y Preterit. 

Was led? ) 



Have been leading:; 

and 
Have been led 



iing^ 

> Present-perfect. 



Had been leading^ 

and V , Preter-perfect 

Had been led? ) 

Shall be leading^ 

and y Future. 

Shall be led? ) 



Shall have been leadinof; 

and 
Shall have been led? 

Should be leading^ 



> Future-perfect. 



and > , . Imperfect. 

Should be led? ) 

Should have been leading^ ^ 

and > Pluperfect. 

Should have been led? ) 

227. How many tenses are there?— Name them. i}^}. 258. In the second end 
third conjugations, is it simply the verb to he, or the participial form v/ith the verb to be 
rhnt indicates the tense?— Example?, Exercise 34. 



ETYMOLOGY. 51 

229. Defective Auxiliaries Defined. 



Present form.* 


Preterit form 


DEFINITIONS. 


Will 


would . . 


Will, intention, determination. 


Shall 


should . . 


Promise, command, threat. 


May 


might . . 


Liberty, possibility. 


Can 


could . . 


Power, ability. 


Must 


must. . . 


Necessity. 



230. Note. — The present defectives are auxiliaries of the future 
and the future perfect tenses; but the preterit defectives are auxiliaries 
of the imperfect and the pluperfect tenses. Examples: 

Will, shall, may, can, or must be Future, f 

Will, shall, may, can, or must have been Future- perfect. 

Would, should, might, could or must be Imperfect. 

Would, should, might, could or must have been Pluperfect. 

* The defectives idUI^ shall, may, can, and must, have the present form, but they are 
not said to be in the present tense; for they are never parsed alone as principal verbs. 
They only denote that the icill, promise, liberty, power, necessity, etc., are present to 
do or to be in future. When the v^ill, promise, liberty, power, necessity etc., are not 
present to do or to be, Vv-e use the defectives in the past form. 

t Mr. Wells, in a late and popular work on grammar, calls may, can, or must be, in- 
dicative mood, present or future tense; and may, can, or must have been, present per 
feet or future perfect tense. But it is perplexing to give two names to the same tense, 
and it should not be done when it can be consistently avoided. 

The principal verb that immediately follows may, can or must, usually refers to fu- 
ture time; and the tense may, without any impropriety, always be called future. If 
we should call may, can, or must he, present tense, whenever the being refers to pres- 
ent time, we might with equal propriety call the form will he present tense when it re- 
fers to present time; for the auxiliary will is som^etimes incorporated wi^ a principal 
verb that has no reference to the future: as, "He always will he first, at everything he 
undertakes:" " Sometimes he will read too fast and then he becomes confused." 
*'Some people will never assist the poor." 

But?ciZZ be is always called future tense, whether it refers to future time or not; then 
why not call may be, can he, or must be, future tense, whether it precisely refers to fu- 
ture time or not"? 

A verb of the present form, following an adverb of time, is called present tense, 
even when it refers to future time: as. When he goes I will accompany him; then why 
may not may, can, or must be, refer occasionally to the present, and still be called fu- 
ture tense"? 



229. Define the defective auxiliaries will and would, shall and should, may and 
might, can and could, must. 

[Lesson 24.] 230. The present defectives are auxiliaries of what tenses'?— The 
preterit defectives are auxiliaries of what tensesi— Examples. 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

231. Remark, i . In the future and imperfect tenses, the defective 
Is auxiliary to be or to the radical form: as, I may be writing, I may 
write; but in the future-perfect and pluperfect tenses, the defective la 
auxiliary to the auxiliary have: as, I shall have been wi;iting, I should 
have been writing. 

232. RexM. II. Will, shall, may, can, or must have been, is called 
future-perfect tense, because the auxiliary have refers to future time: as, 
Next June, he will have been, shall have been, may have been, can have 
been, or must have been four years in the grammar school. 

233. R E M . 1 1 1 . May and can, in cases of uncertainty, are sometimes 
prefixed, hke their preterits, to an auxiliary ^are that refers to past time; 
then the tense may be called pluperfect: as. He may have written that let- 
ter; i. e., it is possible he wrote it. Can I have been mistaken? i. e.,is it 
possible I was mistaken? ^ 

Tenses Defined, 

234. Tlie Present tense denotes what is actually or habitu- 
ally taking place at the time when it is mentioned : as, I eat 
now ; 1 am eating at noon ; I do eat every day. 

235. Remark i. Immutable truths are expressed in the present 
tense, in preference to the preterit: as, He told us that God is just — that 
vice produces misery. 

236. Rem. i i. We sometimes speak of dead authors, when their wri- 
tings still exist, as though they were speaking and acting in the present 
time: as, " Seneca reasons well." David says, "The heavens declare the 
glory of God." 

237. Rem. hi. In animated narrative, the present tense is sometimes 
used for the past, as though the event were present to the senses of the 
narrator: as, Having placed the apple upon his son's head, Tell draios the 
bow and sends the arrow through it. The boy springs to his feet and 
cries, "My father, I am safe." "'Ulysses wakes, not knowing where he 
Was." — Pope. 

238. Rem. i v . After relative pronouns, and some adverbs of time 
and place, the present tense is sometimes used with reference to future 

231. In the future and imperfect tenses, the defective is auxiliary to what? — Exam- 
ples. — In the future-perfect and the pluperfect, the defective is auxiliary to what? — Ex- 
amples^ 232. Why are tcill have been, shall have been, map have been, etc., called fut^e- 
perfect tense? — Examples. 233. "WTien may and can are prefixed to an auxiliary have 
that refers to past time, what is the tense caDed?— Examples. OO- 234. What does 
the present tense denote? — Examples. 235. In what tense are immutable truths ex- 
pressed? Examples. 236. How do v/e sometiiMes speak of dead autnors whose vnritings 
Btill exist? — Examples. 237. In animated narrative how is the present tense Bome- 
times used? — Examples. 



ETYMOLOGY. 53 

time: as, "He will kill every one whom he meets. •''! will wait until* 
the mail arrives.^^ " lead me wheresoe'er I go." 

239. The Preterit tense denotes what took place in past 
time : as, I ate or did eat yesterday noon. 

240. Rem. i . The preterit tense is often used in hypothesis without 
any reference to the past, denoting that the thing supposed does not exist: 
as, If I ate nothing I should die. 

" I wish I were as I have been." — Scott 

"If the whole body t^ere an eye, where were the hearing." — New 
Testament. 

The last were is equivalent to the imperfect tense would be : as, Where toould be the 
hearing? 

241. Rem. ii. Good authors occasionally use the preterit were in tho 
sense of would be: as, 

^' It were long, too long to tell." — Covvper, 
" A cymbal's sound were better." — Pryor. 
" Ah! what wc7'e man, should heaven refuse to hear." 

242. The Present-perfect tense denotes that the subject 
still has a part of the period of time in which the act or state 
was completed: as, I have eaten to-day, this week, this year. 

243. Observation i. It is improper to say I have eaten yesterday, last 
week, or last year; for in the present-perfect tense, the auxiliary have is 
pr-esent, and yesterday, last week, and last year, have no connection witli 
the present time. When there is a period named that breaks off all pos- 
sible allusion to the present time of the subject, the present-perfect cannot 
be used; -hence, it should be, I ate yesterday. I may say, I have been 
young; but not. I have been young many years ago. 

244. Obs. II. The general priesthood, at present, has an existence; and 
hence, we may say, "The priesthood in all ages has claimed great powers;'* 
but the Druid priesthood, at present, has no existence; and therefore, we 
do not say, the Druid priesthood has claimed, but claimed. 

Cicero, at present, has an implied existence in his orations; and hence 
we may say, Cicero has written orations; but Cicero, at present, has no 
such existence in his poems, for they are lost; and therefore, we do not 
say, Cicero has written poems, but wrote poems. 

* These adverbs of time, when, while, until, after, before, as soon as, etc., carry the 
mind forward to the future, so that it conceives the time to be present. 



238. In what instance is the present tense sometimes used v/ith reference to the 
future? — Examples. 

[Lesson 25.] 239. What does the preterit tense denote? — Examples. 240. How is 
the preterit tense often used? — Examples. 241. In what sense is were sometimes used? 
Examples. 242. What does the present-perfect tense denote? — Examples. 243. Why 
is it improper to say 1 have eaten yesterday?— What should it be? 244. Why is it im- 
proper to say, tlie Druid priesthood has claimed great powers?— Why may w© say Cicero 
has written orations?— Why may we not say Cicero has written poems? 



64 ENGLISH GRAMxMAR. 

245. The Pretes-Perfect tense denotes tBat the subject 
had, at some past time, the act or state previously completed : 
as, Yesterday at one o'clock, I had. eaten — I liad at one, eaten 
at twelve. 

246. The Future tense commonly denotes that the will, 
;promise, liberty, jpower, or necessity, is present, to do or to be at 
a future time ; thus, I say now, I ivill, shall, may, can, or must 
eat, to-morrow noon. 

247. The Future-Pereect tense denotes that the will, pro- 
mise, liberty, power, or necessity, is present, to have at a fu- 
ture time something previously completed : as, To-morrow at 
one, I will, shall, may, ca7i, or 7?iust have eaten. — I will have 
at one, eaten at twelve. 

248. The Imperfect tense commonly denotes that the will, 
promise, liberty, power, or necessity, is not present, to do or to 
be at any time : thus, I said then, I would, should, might, coidd 
01 must eat. 

249. The Pluperfect tense denotes that the will, promise, 
liberty, power, or necessity, is not present, to have done or to 
have been at any time : as, I ivould, should, might, could, or 
must have eaten, 

RemarJcs on the Tenses. 

*** The names here given to the tenses, agree very nearly with those 
adopted by the latest authors; as Butler, Wells, and s!^ S. Greene. 

They have the present, the past, the present-perfect, the past-perfect, 
the future, and the future-perfect. Like Murray, they have only six 
tenses. What they call past tense, is here called preterit — a term which 
signifies past. But as there are other tenses which may refer to past time, 
it is doubtless more explicit to give that form of the verb which pecu- 
liarly agrees with past time, the technical name preterit— a term adopted 
by many distinguished grammarians. Murray calls both did love, and 
would love, imperfect tense; both had loved, and would have loved, pluper- 
fect tense. In this way, he makes only six tenses. But did^love, and 
would love, are not properly the same tense. Had loved, and would have 



245. What does the preter-perfect tense denote? — Examples. < >/) 246. What 
does the future tense denote?— Examples. 247. Thefuture-perfectt-^JExampIes. 248 
The imperfect?— Examples. 249. The pluperfect?— Examples. 



ETYMOLOGY. G5 

loved, are doubtless difFerent tenses. They are not only diiterent in form 
but difFerent also in their application. We say, conditionally, we could 
cano-morrow; but we never say, we did eat to-morrow! In the sen- 
tence, 'We had eaten at sunrise,' it is the auxiliary had that corresponds 
with sunrise, the action having taken place indefinitely before that time; 
but in the sentence, 'V/e would have eaten at sunrise,' it is the action it- 
self that is made to correspond with sunrise. The preterit and preter- 
perfect tenses refer to past time, and not to the future : as, I did eat or 
had eaten yesterday; but the imperfect and the pluperfect may be made 
to refer to the future as well as to the past : as, He would go to-morrow 
if he were able; Were it not for this accident, by next June, he would 
have gone to school three years. 

EXERCISE 3 5. 
In v/hat tense are 

Eat, do eat, am hearing, and am heard? 

Ate, did eat, was speaking, and was spoken? 

Have written, have been reading, and have been read? 

Had spoken, had been teaching, and had been taught? 

Will tell, shall be telling, and may be told? 

Will have done, shall have been doing, and can have been done? 

Would draw, should be taking, and might be caught? 

In the above examples, distinguish the active verbs of the first degree 
or first conjugation. — The active verbs of the second conjugation. — The 
passive verbs, (third conjugation). 

Give the verb eat, all the tenses, first conjugation. — All the tenses, sec- 
ond conjugation. — All the tenses, third conjugation. 

Give eat present tense, first conjugation. — Preterit tense, second conju- 
gation. — Present-perfect tense, third conjugation. — Preter-perfect tense, 
second conjugation.— Future tense, first conjugation. — Future-perfect 
tense, second conjugation. — Imperfect tense, third conjugation. — Pluper- 
fect tense, second conjugation. 

EXERC I SE 36. 

Give eat the imperfect participial form.— The pluperfect,— The perfect 
or passive. 

Conjugate eat, precisely by the model. (226.) 

By the same model, conjugate come in three degrees of the active voice.* 
Give the three participles from crown, give, and tell 

Tell again what each of the eight tenses denotes. (234.) 



* The verb come, being intransitive, ca.n have no passive voice. 



[Lesson 26.] Exercise 35, CK>. Exercise 36. 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Remarks on the Defective Auxiliaries. 

WILL, WOULD. 

SHALL, SHOULD. 

250. Will expresses the nominative's will, resolution, or determina- 
tion; as, "I will give unto them eternal life." "Ye will not come unto 
me that ye may have life." They will disobey the warning voice. 

To Resolve, 

Future. Imperfect. 

r\ will disobey, /I would disobey, 

I say. . \ Thou wilt disobey, I said. . ■{ Thou wouldst disobey? 

I He will disobey. I He would disobey. 

251. Will is sometimes used to foretell a future event, and 
Shall is commonly used to foretell, in the first person. 

To Foretell. 

Future. 

I shall suffer, 

Thou wilt suffer, 
He will suffer. 

252. Shall may be used to foretell in the second and third persons 
also, when the future event is preceded by a w^ord expressing condition, 
time, or place: as, If you and he shall suffer when the event shall come, 
where shall you find relief ? 

Again: Shall agrees with the second and third persons when the senti- 
ments of these persons are repeated: as. You say, you think you shall 
die. He thinks he shall be elected. 

253. Shall is used with any person to which a promise, command, or 
threat is made: as. They promise that I, you, and he, shall receive reward. 
*' Thou Shalt not steal." " The soul that sinneth shall die." 



[Lesson 27.] 250. What does wriZZ express? — Examples. 251. How is wiZZ some- 
times used? — What auxiliary is commonly used to foretell in the first person? — Exam- 
ples. 252. Vv'hen may shall be used to foretell in the second and third persons? — Ex- 
amples. — Again?— Examples. 253. How is 5/^gZZ generally used? — Examples. — When 
the prerogative to give command belongs to the second person, does shall apply to the 
second person? 



ETYMOLOGY. 57 

To Threat. 

Future, Imperfect. 

r I shall die, r I should die, 

He says- <! Thou shall die, He said. . \ Thou shouldst die, 

Lit shall die. I He should die. 

Interrogatively, thus: 

Shall I write? 
Will you write? 
Shall he write? 

In these interrogative examples, we suppose it to be the prerogative of 
the second person to give command ; and hence, shall does apply to the 
second person. 

When this prerogative belongs to the third person, shall does not apply 
to the third person; thus: 

Shall! write? 
Shall you write? 
Willhew*rite? 

254. Would, should, might, and could, are auxiliaries of the compound 
tenses, and are usually conjoined with some subordinate clause contain- 
ing a verb of past form: as, I would be content if I could. 

Sometimes the conditional or subordinate clause is not expressed, but 
understood: as. 

Pride still is aiming at the blest abodes; 

Men would be angels, angels would be gods."— Pope. 

(If they could.) 

25.5. S/iomZ(^ is sometimes used to express a future contingency: as, If 
he should come, I will see him. 

256. Should is often used instead of ought, expressing duty: as. Chil- 
dren should obey their parents. 

Obs.— You find that must, in the columns of auxiliaries, is marked 
both present and past; but by attending to the following remarks, you 
may easily denominate the tense of which must is an inceptive auxiliary. 

Give an interrogative example.— V^^en such prerogative belongs to the third person, 
does sAaZZ apply to the third persons-Example. < K^ 254. With what are would, 
should, might and could, usually conjoinedl-Exaraple.-Is the subordinate clause al- 
ways expressed!— Example. 255. How is sAoztZc? sometimes nsedl— Examole. 256. 
How is should often used? — Example. 



58 ENGLISH GRAIVJMAR. 



257. Remark i. When must, axixiliary to the radical, denotes a 
present or prospective necessity to do, the tense is future: as, 1 mast go 
next June; or, prospectively: If he come next June, I must go. 

258. Rex\i. II. When the necessity is present and the auxiliary ^aue, fu- 
ture, the tense is future-perfect: as. To enter college next June, he must 
have studied four years in the grammar school. 

259. Re3i. III. When either the necessity or the auxiliary have refers to 
past time, the tense is imperfect or else pluperfect. 

Imperfect: as, I told him yesterday he jnust go. 
Pluperfect: as. He must ham gone yesterday. 
These remarks apply generally to the other defective auxiliaries. 

260. Note. — Will and shall are frequently misapplied, the one for the 
other. It is said that the foreigner, when he had fallen into the river Thames, 
cried out, I will be drowned and no one shall help me. But the unfortu- 
nate man made a fatal misapplication of the auxiliaries will and shall— 
He expressed a determination to be drowned and that no one should help 
him. He should have said, I shall be drov^^ned and no one will help me. 

EXERCISE 37. 
Correct the follov/ing 

/ mjy rojye r Expression s. 

Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me. The Lord shall comfort 
Zion. Thou shalt not suffer thy holy one to see corruption. I will be 
punished for my disobedience. Where will I send for you? I will bo 
compelled to retire. I am determined that my pupils will obey me. I 
hope I will not be disappointed. 

MOODS. 

261. Mood means tbe manner of expressing an act or a 
state : as, You teach : Teach me : You came to teach, '' I say, 
say nothing when 3rou have nothing to say.'' 



2o7. \\ hen must, auxiliary to the radical, denotes a present or prospective necessity 
to do, what tense is it?-Examples. 258. When the necessity is present, and the aux- 
iliary have future, what tense is it?-Example. 259. AVhen either the necessity or 
the auxiliary have refers to past time, what tense is it?— Examples. 

[Lesson 28.] 260 mat is said of the foreigner?-Exercise 37. 2G1 What does 
mood mean? — Examples. 



ETYMOLOGY. 59 

262. There are three moods : — the Indicative, the Impera- 
tive, and the Infinitive, 

To these are sometimes added the potential and subjunctive moods. 

263. Indicative. — The Indicative mood is used in all the 
tenses, to declare or to inquire : as, I teach : Ca7i he learn ? 

The declaratory form may be either absolute or conditional ; as, I will 
teach him, if he can learn. 

264. The subject of the indicative mood is always in the nominative 
case. 

265. Imperative. — The Imperative mood is used in the pre- 
sent tense, to command or to request : as, James, Jearn your 
lesson. Learn you, or do thou learn. Our Father, deliver us 
from evil. 

266. A verb in the imperative mood has no personal terminations, for 
it has no nominative to vary its form.* The subject to which it refers, is 
an independent nominative. James, you, thou, and father, in the preced- 
ing examples, are all in the nominative case independent. 

267. Infinitive. — The Infinitive mood is used in the present 
and perfect tenses, to express an act or a state in a general, 
unlimited manner : as, To learn : To have learned. 



*" Verbs, in the imperative mood, are used without a nominative expressed ; and we 
are of opinion there is none implied." — Spencer. 

"The error of attaching person and number to the imperative verb, appears to have 
originated in the error of attaching to it a nominative case. All writers on grammar, 
coincide in making it agree with a pronoun understood for its nominative. Thus in 
the sentence. Thou traitor depart ; they would make thou and traitor in apposition in 
the nominative case, independent, being both used in a direct address, and depart 
would be made to agree with thou understood ; thus. Thou traitor depart thou. But it 
appears evident to my mind, that if the former thou is put in apposition with traitor, 
the latter thou is equally so, for it personates traitor, and is used in the same manner 
as the former. Again : If we command or entreat a person to perform an action, he 
may not obey, or grant our request ; and, consequently, the action not being performed, 
the person addressed does not become an actor or agent to the verb ; nor is the person 
giving the command, the actor or agent, for the action remains unperformed ; hence, 
there can be no nominative case." — Benedict's Murray. 



262. How many moods ? — Name them. — What others are sometimes added ? 263. 
How is the indicative used "' — Examples. 264. In what case is the subject of the in 
dicative mood 7 165. How is the imperative used? — Examples. 266. Why has the 
imperative verb no personal terminations 1 — AMiat of the subject to which it refers 1- 
Examples. C3^> 267. How is the infinitive used? — Exaraple^ 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

268. A verb in the infinitive mood has no personal terminations ; for, 

like the imperative mood and the participles, it has no nominative to vary 
its form ; its subject is either nominative to some indicative verb, or the 
objective case, the object of some transitive verb or preposition. 

In the sentence, ^ I wish to learn,^ the pronoun / is nominative to the 
indicative verb icish, and it is also the subject of the infinitive verb to 
learn; but in the sentence, ' I wish him to learn,' him is in the objective 
case governed by the transitive verb wish, and it is^lso the subject of the 
infinitive verb to learn. 

269. When a verb in the infinitive has the nominative case for its sub- 
ject, the particle to is prefixed to the verb as a part of it : as, I am to learn; 
but when a verb in the infinitive has the objective case for its subject, the 
to is sometimes omitted : as, I bid him learn : I see her study : I feel 
them move. 

270. The present tense of the infinitive is be, or else the radical form 
of the verb. 

271. The perfect tense of the infinitive, is the perfect form of the verb 
with the auxihar}^ have prefixed. 

272. The present tense of the infinitive, like the imperative, frequently 
refers to future time; but it has no auxiliary, either expressed or under- 
stood, to distinguish it as a future tense : as, she intends to learn. 

273. The auxiliary have, in the infinitve, is not called present, for it 
frequently refers to past or future time : as, she seems to have learned : 
she expects, by to-morrow noon, to have learned all her lessons. 

We call this tense of the infinitive, perfect, and not present-perfect nor 
future-perfect. 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

I requested him to learn. She appears to have learned. I have heard 
her speak. I had heard her speaking. We will hear him speak his sen- 
timents. We shall have heard his sentiments spoken. Having spoken 
his sentiments, he was applaudedo Could I be restored ? Come, do tell 
me. Write now. You should have been writinj^. 



268. Why has the infinitive no personal terminations ? — A'VTaat of the subject to 
which it refers ? 269. What particle is uinally pr^tixeJ to a verb in the infinitive? — 
Examples. — Under v»-hat circumstances is the |)anicle to sometimes omitted? — Exam- 
ples. 270. ^v'hat is {he form of the present iniinitive ? 271. What is the form of the 
perfect intinitive ? 2V2. Does ilie present tense of the infinitive ever refer to future 
time ? — Does it have any auxiliary to distinguish it as a future tense ? 273. In the in- 
finitive perfect, why is tiie auxiliary huvc not called present ? — Kxam.ples, — Is this tense 
of the infinitive called perfect, or present perfect ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 61 

Exercise 38. — Etymological Parsing. 

Observation. — As the teacher reads the preceding sentences, the pupil may parse 
the verbs, as follows : 

Requested is a transitive verb, indicative mood, preterit tense. 

To learn an intransitive verb, infinitive mood, present tense. 

Appears... an intransitive verb, third person singular, indicative 

mood, present tense. 
To have learned, .an intransitive verb, infinitive mood, perfect tense. 

Have heard a transitive verb, indicative mood, present-perfect tense. 

Speak .an intransitive verb, infinitive mood, present tense. 

Had heard a transitive verb, indicative mood, preter-perfect tense. 

Speaking an imperfect intransitive participle. 

Will hear a transitive verb, indicative mood, future tense. 

Speak a transitive verb, infinitive mood, present tense. 

Shall have heard, .a transitive verb, indicative mood, future-perfect tense. 

Spoken a passive participle. 

Having spoken. . .a pluperfect transitive participle. 

Was applauded. . .a passive verb, indicative mood, preterit tense. 

Co2dd be restored, .a passive verb, indicative mood, imperfect tense. 

Come an intransitive verb, imperative mood, present tense. 

Do tell a transitive verb, imperative mood, present tense. 

Wi'ite an intransitive verb, imperative mood, present tense. 

Should have been 

writing an intransitive verb, indicative mood, pluperfect tense. 

Remarks on the Potential^' arid Suhjunctive Moods. 

*^* PoTENTiAL.—Lindley Murray, as well as many of his copyists, 
makes may, can, must, might, could, would, and should, the signs of a 
distinct mood, which he denominates potential. 

While he correctly teaches, that a verb used declaratively is in the in- 
dicative mood, he denies certain declarations, the epithet, indicative. Will 
go, or shall go, he would properly call indicative mood; but would go, or 
should go, he would c^W potential mood, and not indicative. I say now, I 
will go; I said yesterday, I would go. Here will go and ivould go, are one 
and the same declaration, only made at different times; and they are, 
therefore, both, strictly speaking, in the indicative mood. *' / should like 
to visit my friends.^'' Here is as absolute a declaration as can be made; 
and the verb should like agrees precisely v/ith Murray's definition of the 

* " 1 have followed the common arrangement of the moods without being satisfied 
with it. There seems to be no sufficient foundation for either the subjunctive or the 
potential. Neither of these moods seems to be defined by distinct boundaries."—. 
Butler. 

[Lesson29.] Exerci.>e3R. Oa) 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

indicative mood; yet he would not call it indicative. I can read, ^ is a 

declaration; and the verb can read, is properly entitled to the epithet in- 
dicative; — as much so, at least, as the interrogative form ^will you read?^ 
which is called indicative by all. 

The defective auxiliaries are properly the signs of tenses, and not the 
signs of a mood; and I see no good reason why the potential, or the sub- 
junctive either, should be used in our grammars. 

Murray's aggregate number of moods and tenses is eleven, viz : five moods and six 
tenses. The niimber in this work enumerated is also eleven: thus, three moods and 
eight tenses. This seems to be a correct and philosophic arrangement. 

*^* SuBJUXCTivE. — It is commonly stated in grammars, that verbs are in 
the subjunctive mood when they follow the conjunctions, if, though, un- 
less, promded, lest, or except, — involving future contingency : as, 

H I go, 
If thou go, 
If he go. 

Some say that a verb is in the subjunctive mood whenever it follows 
one of these words of condition : others think, that to be subjunctive, it 
should both follow a word of condition and involve a future contingency 

It seems that this mood cannot be " defined by any distinct bounda- 
ries." 

A verb assumes no peculiarity of form in consequence of following a 
word of condition; for, as Mr. Pue remarks, "a conjunction never gov- 
erns the mood of any verb." 

Go- — the above paradigm — has no personal terminations; and why not? 
Is it because it follows the conjunction if? Certainly it is not. It is 
because it refers to future tim.e, and must have an auxiliary understood : 
as. If thou shalt go, — if he shall go, or should go. 

" Take heed that thou speak not to Jacoh.^^ Here the verb speak does 
not liave a termination in est; and why ? Is it because it follows a word 
of condition ? There is no word of condition before it. It is because 
the verb speak, alluding to tlie future, has an auxiliary understood; and 
no verb can have a personal termination when it has an auxiliary, either 
expressed or implied. 

"if thou believest icith all thy heart, thou mayst.^^ This implies a pre- 
sent uncertainty; and having no reference to future time, there is no 
auxiliary understood before the verb. Believest, in the present tense, has 
its personal termination in est, notwithstanding the conjunction if is be- 
fore it. 

* <' The forms of expression, I can go, we may ride, he must obey, are really decla- 
ratory, and properly belong to the indicative mood." — Webster. 

" The potential mood is also rejected by Jamieson, H. Ward, Martin, Coote, Cob- 
bett, Lewis, Hazlitt, Hodgson, St. duentin, Bell, Barrie, Buchanan, Coar, Trinder, 
Adam, Arnold, Perry, Ross, Nutting, J. P. Wilson, Willard, Hallock, Dearborn, J. 
Flint, D. Adams, Judson, Pue, Cardell, Cutler, Balch, French, and others. "—Wells. 



ETYMOLOGY. 63 

Inasmuch, then, as the word of condition has no power to change the 
form of the verb, there can be no necessity for using the term subjunc- 
tive mood.* 

Contingency and Hypothesis, 

274. Contingency, is any event that may casually occur; 
as, If he Jcnoiv his lesson to-morrow, I can hear him. 

275. Hypothesis, is something supposed that does not actu- 
ally exist : as, If he kneiv his lesson now, I could hear him, — 
intimating that he does not know it. 

276. Present uncertainty, is expressed by a verb in the pre- 
sent tense : as, If he Jcnoivs his lesson now, I can hear him. 

Remark i. — When, in a contingency, the defective auxiliary is 
omitted through ellipsis, the verb should have no personal form. 

Examples of Future Contingency. 

" Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty." 

" If thou injure another, thou wilt injure thyself." 

" Take heed lest any man deceive you." 

"Unless he act prudently, he will not accomplish his end." 

Rem. II.— Radical verbs that have the defective auxiliary omitted 
through ellipsis, are called elliptical future, or elliptical imperfect, as the 
case may be.f Mr. Kirkham says, this tense ought to be called the ellip- 
tical future. 

* " The including of the ' subjunctive' in the indicative would not interfere with the 
definition, for the 'subjunctive' declares as much as the 'indicative' does, so far as the 
verb is concerned ; the only diiference between he has loved and if he has loved, con- 
sisting in the conjunction." — Butler. 

t " Deut. ix, 28 : Lest the land say — in the original, lest the land shall say — in the 
future. 

" Deut. XXX, 17 : If thine heart turn aAvay, so that th,ou wilt not hear — original — if 
thine heart shall turn — in the future. 

" 1 Kings, viii, 31 : If any man trespass against his neighbor— original — shall tres- 
pass. 

"As a general fact, the original Hebrew verb, which the translators have rendered 
by a verb without shall or will, or a personal termination, is in the future tense ; and 
the English verb, having the sense of the future, ought to be arranged in our grammars 
under that tense." — Webster. 

In the conditional future (as Webster terms it), the auxiliary do sometimes usurps 
the place of the defective ; but then it can have no personal termination : as, "If thou 
do prosper my way." — Bible. i 

274. What is meant by contingency ? — Example. 275. Wliat is hypothesis 1 — Ex- 
ample. 276. How is present uncertainty expressed 7 — Example. Remark 1. When 
the auxiliary is omitted through ellipsis, has the verb a personal form 1 — Examples, 
Remark 2. Radical verbs that have the defective auxiliary omitted through ellipsis, 
are in what tense 1 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rem. III. — In a hypothesis, the tense is advanced a step in its relation 
to time : thus, In the following example, the preterit verb knew relates 
to the present time. 

Examples of Hypothesis, 

If he knew his lesson nov/, he would recite it. 
If he liad known it then, he would have recited it. 
If he could recite it, he would do so. 
If he could have recited it, he would have done so. 

Be. 

277. The indicative 6e is future; but am^ are^ art, and is, are present, 
thus: 

Present tense. Elliptical future or Imperfect, 

If I am, If I be, 

If thou art, If thou be, 

If he is. If he be. 

We do not say, *If he is in town to-morrow;* but. If he be in town to- 
morrow — meaning, If he shall be, in the future tense; or. if he should 
be, in the imperfect tense. Instead of, 'If he be there now,' say, if he is 
there now. 

Be was formerly used in the indicative present: as, " We be twelve 
brethren." "If thou be the Christ, tell us plainly." 

According to the last example, be is still sometimes used conditionally 
in the present; but the usage is not to be recommended. For the stabili- 
ty of the language, it is better to have uniformity. If thou be the Christ: 
If thou ART the Christ, These verbs be and art both refer to the present 
time; but as art is peculiarly the present form, it is to be preferred in the 
indicative present. 

Were. 

278. In a hypothesis the preterit were is preferred to was: as. If I were 
young again. "Were I Brutus and Brutus Antony." He does not study, 
but if he were to study, he v/ould improve. 

PRETERIT. (^Hypothetical.) 
If I were, ^ 
If thou wert, }> j\roic. 
If he were. J 

Remark 3. Examples of hypothesis. 

[Lesson 30.] 277. In what tense is the indicative be? — Am, are, art and is? — In a 
present uncertainty, inflect am in three persons, and also as elliptical future. — Correct 
these expressions: If he is in town to-morrow: If he be there now. — Tell which of the 
following, is to be preferred: If thou be the Christ; If thou art the Christ. 278. In a 
hypothesis, which is to be preferred, was or were? — Examples. — Inflect were, hypo- 
thetic ally. 



ETYMOLOGY. 65 

The following is no hypothesis and therefore were should be was to 
agree with he iu past time: *' Though he were a son, yet learned he obedi' 
ence.^^ 

exercise39. 

In the following sentences, tell whether the verbs allude to a present uncertainty, a 
future contingency, or a hypothesis: 

*' If I am not deceived, he is a worthy man; if he be found otherwise, 
I shall be greatly disappointed; if I were you, 1 would not hesitate to 
employ him." " If he is born to think." Though he were to read 
much, yet would he know but little. Unless the river be high, we shall 
pass over. If she study, she will improve. "If thine enemy hunger, 
feed him." 

This last might be called elliptical imperfect, being equivalent to should hunger. 
EXERCISE 40 . — Improper Expressions. 

If I was you I would accommodate him. If you are satisfied next 
Christmas, he will not leave you. If he be now ready, he may commence. 
If thou returnest to-morrow, start early. " If there be but one body of 
legislators, it is no better than a tyranny; if there are only two, there 
will want a casting vote." 

He marks on am and tell. 

279. Am, as a principal verb, has only one conjugation; but as an 
auxiliary, it assists in the conjugation of the second and third degrees. 

280. Tell, like all other transitive verbs, has three different degrees or 
conjugations. 

The conjugation of tell may serve as a model for all other transi- 
tive verbs; and hence it is earnestly requested that this model, as found 
on page 67, be thoroughly committed to memory, as well as the model 
for am, on page 66. It presents, in a rational way, all the forms of the 
verb, and all may be seen at a single glance. 

On the next two pages, may be fou.nd the entire conjugation of am 
and tell. 

Exercise 39. — Exercise 40. 1>0 279. ^m, as a principal verb, has how many conjuga- 
tions? — It assists in the conjugation of what degrees'? 280. Tell has how many con- 
jugations? — The conjugation of tell may serve as a model for what other verbs? 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

CONJUGATION OP Am. 

Rem. This verb am, which has only one conjugation, is taken through 
the various moods, tenses, persons, numbers, and participles, as follows: 

281. Model */AM — Indicative Mood, First Degree. 

First Person: ... .1 am now, I was then, I have or had been, I will or 

would be, I will or would have been. 
Second Person: . . Thou art now, thou wast then, thou hast or hadstbeen, 

thou wilt or wouldst be, thou wilt or wouldst have been. 
Third Person ; . . . He is now, he was then, he has or had been, he will or 

would be, he will or would have been. 
Imperative Mood: Be, be you, or do thou be. 
Indicative Moo(i:. Present, To be: Perfect, to have been. 
Participles: Imperfect, Being: Pluperfect, having been: Perfect, been. 

FORMULA. 
Present. Preterit. Perfect. Future. Perfect. 

[AM.] 
/ am, was, have 1 will 



ave 1 will "j 

or > been, or y be, — have been 

lad J would J 



we [are, were,] had 

hast ") will 

Thou art, wast, or ' > been, or \ be, — have been 

hadst J wouldst 

has ^ will 

He is, was, or J>been, or j>be, — have been, 

had J would 



(Do be. 

To be,. to have been. 

Being, having been, been. 

Obs. The formulas should be inspected, and conjugated precisely by 
the models, which must be well commirtted to memory. 

CONJUGATION OF Tell . 

Rem. — This verb tell, like all other transitive verbs, has three degrees in 
its conjugation, and each degree is taken through the various moods, 
tenses, persons, numbers, and participles, as follows: 

281. Model for conjugating am. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



67 



282. Model *:^'^T'E'LIj— Indicative Mood, First Degree. 

First Person:. . . .1 tell or do tell now, I told or did tell then, I have or 

had told; I will or would tell, I will or would have 

told. 
Second Person: . . Thou tellest or dost tell now, thou toldest or didst tell 

then, thou hast or hadst told; thou wilt or wouldsttell, 

thou wilt or wouldst have told. 
Third Person: . . . He tells or does tell now, he told or did tell then, he has 

or had told; he will or would tell, he will or would 

have told. 
Imperative Mood: Tell, tell you, or do thou telh 
Infinitive Mood:. .Present, to tell — Perfect, to have told. 
Participles : Imperfect, telling; Pluperfect, having told; Perfect, told. 



AM TELLING — Indicative mood; second degree. 



First Person: 



.1 am telling now, I was telling then, I have or had been 

telling; I will or would be telling, I will or would have 

been telling. 
Second Person: . . Thou art telling now, thou wast telling then, thou hast 

or hadst been telling; thou wilt or wouldst be telling, 

thou wilt or wouldst have been telling. 
Third Person: . . . He is telling now, he was telling then, he has or had 

been telling; he will or v/ould be telling, he will or 

would have been telling. 

Be telling, be you telling, or do thou be telling. 

.Present, to be telling; Perfect, to have been telling. 

Imperfect, being telling; Pluperfect, having been telling. 



Imperative Mood: 
Infinitive Mood: . . 
Participles : . 



AM TOIA)— Indicative Mood, third degree, passive voice. 

First Person:. . . .1 am told now, I was told then, I have or had been 

told; I will or would be told, I will or would have been 

told. 
Second Person:. . Thou art told now, thou wast told then, thou hast or 

hadst been told; thou wilt or wouldst be told, thou 

v/ilt or wouldst have been told. 
Third Person: ... He is told now, he was told then, he has or had been 

told; he will or would be told, he will or would have 

been told. 
Imperative Mood:. Be told, be you told, or do thou be told. 
Infinitive Mood: . Present, to be told; Perfect, to have been told. 
Participles: Imperfect, being told; Pluperfect, having been told. 



[Lesson 31.] 282, Model for conjugating tcW, CM) 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 



[TELL.] 



Thou 



He 



tell 
(do tell, 

^tellest 
-f or 
idost tell, 

^tells 
< or 

(does tell, 
cTell 



Preterit. 

told 
or 
did tell, 

toldest 

or 

dkist tell, 
told 

or 

did tell, 



FORMULA. 

Perfect 



Future. 



\ have \ 

\ had \ 

\ hast ^ 

S hidst s 

i has i 

S had ^ 



will 
told, or 
would 

wilt 
or 
wouldst 

will 
told. or 
would 



told, 



( tell, — 
i tell, — 
> tell, — 



Perfect, 



have told. 



have told. 



have told. 



CDo tell. 
To tell,.. 
Telling,.. 

[am telling.] 

/ am, 

we [are 

Thou art. 



. to have told, 
having told, . 



.told. 



was, 
were] 

w^ast, 



He is, was, 

fBe telling 
CDo be telling. 

To be telling,. . . . . 

Being telling,. . . . 

[AM TOLD.] 

I am, was, 

%ve [are were] 

Thmt art, wast, 

He is, was, 

/Be told 
too be told. 

To be told, , . 

Being told, 



have 

or 

had 
hast 

or 
hadst 

has i 
or > 



will 



V been, or v he, — have been 

S would S 



wilt 
been, or 



, .. > be, — have been 

wouldst) 



will \ 
,- been, or (• be, — have been 

had J would > 



.to have been telling, 
having been telling. 



have ^ will 

or V been, or (. be, — have been 

had ) woul 

hast I wilt \ 

or > been, or \ be, — have been 

hadst ? wouldst) 

has ) will ^ 

or > been, or > be, — have been 

had J would S 



I 

iild ) 



to have been told. 
, having been told. 



ETYMOLOGY. 69 

EXERCISE 41. 

Obs. The teacher would do well to select a number of these forms and require his 
pupils to name the conjugation of each — the mood and tense — the person and number 
of such as have personal forms; — if a participle, to tell its kind, and of what conju- 
gation. 

Remarks on the Imperfect Participle of the Third Conjugation. 

283. The imperfect participle of the third degree, commonly called 
the imperfect passive participle, is sometimes changed into an entire pas- 
sive verb of \b^ present or preterit tense: as, The book is being read; 
The book was being read; The story was being told v^rhen you came in. 

Active, Passive. 

They are building a house. The house is being built by them. 

284. When the action is still progressing, it is better to say, 'The house 
is being built,^ than to say, as some authors do, 'The house is building*^* 
We never say, * The book is reading,' but when the action is progressing, 
we say, in the passive, 'The book is being read;^ w^hen the action is com- 
pleted, we say, * the book is read, — the house is built.'* 

285. Some verbs, as knov^i love, and a few others, are necessarily pro- 
gressive in their nature, and their imperfect participle is perhaps never 
conjugated: We say, in the active voice, He knows, she loved: in the pas- 
sive, he is known, she was loved; but we do not say, He is knowing, he is 
being known, nor, she was being loved. 

GENERALRE MARKS. 

286. 1st. The model for conjugating tell, may be used for any transi- 
tive verb. 

287. 2d. As a general rule, those verbs that are never used transitively, 
are conjugated only in the first and second degrees: as, I arrive, I am ar- 
riving; but, ajn arrived is not considered good language. 



* "The battle is being fought; the enterprise is being executed; the property is be- 
ing sold; the song is being sung." " These would be horrid if altered to, the battle is 
fighting; the enterprise is executing; the property is selling; the song is singing." — 

[Pue. 



Exercise 41. 

[Lesson 32.] 283. Is the imperfect participle of the third conjugation ever changed 
into an entire verbl — In what tenses is such verb used"? — Examples. 284. When is such 
a change of that participle made? — When the action is completed, what form of ex- 
pression do we use? 285. What verbs are progressive in their nature? — Are their im- 
perfect participles changed into entire verbs? — Examples. 286, What model may be 
used for conjugating all transitive verbs? 287. In what degrees are intransitive verbs 
generally conjugated? 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

288. 3d. The intransitive verbs go^ come, rise, fall, flee, and perhaps a 
few others, are customarily conjugated ,as tell in the three degrees, bat 
all in the active voice: as, He goes, he is going, he is gone. He kas gonej 
however, is considered better language than he is gone. 

" 0\ Judgment, thou art fled to brutish beasts." 
Art fled is considered good English; but hastfl.ed is the legitimate ac- 
tive form, and is doubtless better. 

289. EEauLAR. — A verb is called regular, wlien its preterit 
tense and perfect participle, both end in ed. 

290. Irregular. — A verb is called irregular, when its pre- 
terit tense and perfect participle do not both end in ed, 

EXERCISE 42. 

Conjugate by the models, the following verbs: 

Observation. — In conjugating, it may be well occasionally to employ, in lieu of 
will and would, the defectives shall and sJiould, may and might, can and could, must 
and must: thus, I shall or should arrive, I may or might see, I can or could go, I must 
or must sit 

REGULARTRANSITIVE. 

Present. Freterit. Perfect part. 

( Love, loved, loved. 

^^i^^ ) J Crown, crowned, crowned. 

^^^^l^^ • 1 Rnle, ruled, ruled. 

t^ Call, called, called. 

REGULAR INTRANSITIVE. 

Shall ) (Arrive, arrived, arrived. ) 

or ?• (Appear, appeared, appeared.) ^''o'id deg, 

IRREGULAR TRANSITIVE. 

'^^l^ } (See, saw, seen. 

MlghtS (Do, did, done. 

IRREGULAR INTRANSITIVE. 

Can 1 (x\rise, arose, arisen. 

^^ ,,^ /Go, went, gone. 

Goulds ^ ^ & 

Must^ (Sit, sat, sat, \ 

^^ X |Am, was, been, J ^l^oUd^g. 

Must^ ^ ^ ' ' -' 

291. Rem. i. The auxiliaries ham and am, in their various forms, come 

before the perfect or passive participle, and not before the preterit tense: 

as, I have seen or am seen — not, have saw nor am saw. 

288. Name some intransitive verbs that are sometimes conjugated in three degrees, 
active voice Oal* 289. When is a verb called regular? 290. "When is a verb 
called irregular? — Exercise 42. 

[Lesson 33.] 291. "VVhat do ham and am in their various forms, come before?— 
Examples. 



ETYMOLOGY. 71 

292. Rem. ii. The participle, without an auxiliary, can have no nom- 
inative; thus: instead of, I given, I done — say, I gam^ I did. 

EXERCISE 4 3 . — Improper Expressions. 

(Rem. 1.) I have saw him. 1 have did my duly. He has went 
home. The moon having arose, he departed. The work must be did to- 
day. The sun is arose. 

(Rem. 2.) He seen the Governor. He done right. 

EXERCISE 44. 

In the following sentences, name the radical from which each verb is derived — name 
the conjugation, and mood and tense, of each entire verb. 

I am to continue. She was to have written. We have been expecting 
to see them. We had been hearing them sing. It is known that they 
concealed their treasures. It might have been understood that they were 
trying to conceal their treasures. They must have been concealing their 
treasures. They had had gold concealed. Having concealed their gold, 
they were leaving the city. The gold, at this time being obtained, shall 
be given to the needy. Being concealing their gold, they heard us. Hav- 
ing been concealing themselves, their lights were extinguished. Having 
been summoned, they were bound to attend. Hear the witness. Be wri- 
ting. Go. Be forgiven. If the letter shall have been written, the busi- 
ness can be accomplished immediately. My son, be seated. You appear 
to have been running. You seem to have been frightened. My books 
are marked. One is gone. It is being read bv a friend. 



293. Syntax.— Syntax treats of the proper agreement, con- 
nection, and government of words in a sentence : tiius^ 

A verb agrees with its nominative ; 

A pronoun agrees with its antecedent ; 

Prepositions and conjunctions connect ; 

Transitive verbs and prepositions govern the objective case. 
(See syntax, part 3d.) The following are the rules of syntax. 
The first five show how the verb agrees with its nominative in 
person and number. 

292. Does a participle without an auxiliary have a nominative? — Examples.— Exer- 
cise 43. i,}i,y. Exercise 44. 293. Of what does syntax treat? — Examples. — What 
do the first five rules of syntax show? 

7 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 

KuLE 1. . . Am agrees with the first person singular. 

Rule 2. . . The indicative is inflected to i, st, or est, agreeing 
with the second person singular. 

Rule 3, . . The indicative present is inflected to s, es, or th, 
agreeing with the third person singular. 

Rule 4. . . Was agrees with the first or third person singu- 
lar. 

Rule b, . . Are and ivere are always plural, except when 
ivei-e in hypothesis agrees with the singular. 

Rule 6. . . The subject of the indicative mood is in the 
nominative case. 

Rule 7. . . When a substantive is the object of a transi- 
tive verb, it is in the objective case. 

Rule 8. . . Two objectives may follow transitive verbs of 
asking, teaching, giving, and some others: as, 
He asked me a question : I taught him gram- 
mar. 

Rule 9. . . When a substantive follows an intransitive or a 
passive verb, and implies the same thing as the 
subject of the verb, it agrees with the subject in 
case : as, It is he. He was called John. 

Ru^B 10. . . When a substantive follows an intransitive or 
a passive verb, and implies a different thing 
from the subject of the verb, it is in the objec- 
tive case absolute : as, He came home. He was 
taught grammar. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



73 



. When one substantive follows another to identify 
it, it agrees with the former in case, being in ap- 
position to it : as, Paul the Apostle : John the 
Baptist. 

. When a substantive is addressed or placed be 
fore a participle, and there is no word on which 
its case depends, it is in the nominative case in- 
dependent : as, 0, my son ! The son being slain, 
the father wept. 

. A substantive, used to answer a question, agrees 
in case with the interrogative : as. Who created 
us ? Ans. He, Whom should we obey ? Ans. 
Him. 

. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, 
number, and gender. 

. The possessive case points out the substantive 
possessed. 

. Adjectives point out and qualify substantives. 

. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, and other ad- 
verbs. 

. A preposition connects its precedent with its 
object. 

. When a substantive is the object of a preposi- 
tion, it is in the objective case. 

. Conjunctions usually connect sentences and 
phrases. 

. And, or, and wor, connect words of the same case 
or dependence: as, He and /. He reads or 
writes. 

. Tha7i and as connect substantives of the same 
ease, but any words or phrases so connected 
usually have a different dependence : as, / am 
not so wise as he (is). Physical labor is not 
more fatiguing ihsm pei^usin^ books. 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EuLE 23. . . When a collective noun, is taken as one body, 
and used as an individual thing of the singular 
neuter, any verb or substantive that agrees with 
it is singular: as, The assembly was remarkable 
for its size. But when reference is made to tbe 
members of the collective noun, any verb or 
substantive that agrees with it is plural: as, 
The assembly ivere leaving for tJieii' homes. 

Rule 24. . . When several nominatives are connected by and, 
any verb or substantive that agrees with them 
is plural: as, Wasliington and Franklin were 
benefactors of their country. 

EuLE 25. . . When singular nominatives are connected by or 
or nor, any verb or substantive that agrees with 
them, is singular : as, Neither Claudius nor Ne- 
ro was a benefactor of his country. 

EuLE 26. . . When nominatives, in different persons, are con- 
nected by or or nor, the verb commonly agrees 
with that which next precedes it ; being under- 
stood to the rest in the person and number re- 
quired : as, He or you are in fault; you or he 
is in fault. 

EuLE 27. . . Interjections have no grammatical connection 
with other words : as, Alas ! I am forsaken. 



ANALYSIS. 

294. Analysis is the resolving of a sentence into its elements 
or parts. 

We analyze or parse a sentence b}^ explaining it according to the rules 
and definitions of grammar. 

Analysis is the opposite of synthesis. 



Lesson 31.1 294. What is analysis? — How do we analyze or parse a sentence'? 



ETYMOLOGY. 75 

295. Synthesis or construction, is the uniting of words to 
form a sentence. 

Obs. You have been exercising in synthesis from the commencement. You may 
now turn your attention to a few of the next pages, and analyze or parse, syntactically, 
all sorts of verbs and substantives. 

236. OarER. In parsing a substantive, after telling its class, we name, 
first, its person; secondly, its number; thirdly, its gender; (if any) — 
fourthly, its case; and fifthly, its dependence. 

In parsing a verb, we name — first, its mood; secondly, its tense: thirdly, 
its denomination; fourthly, its person and number, (if any,) and fifthly, 
its agreement or concord. 

EXERCISE 45 . — Syntactical Parsing. 

Note. In this exercise, the model used for parsing the first example, is used for 
parsing all other examples in the same line. By parsing all the examples in full, thepupil 
will become familiar with the order of parsing all sorts of nouns and pronouns in the 
nominative case, intransitive verbs in all the tenses, persons, and numbers, and all 
rules relating to them. 

Ex a mp le s . 

1. I am. I an coming. I am come. I am sitting. 

2. I was. I was going. I was speaking. 

rp (go^st, dost go, art going, art singing. 

(wentest, didst go, wast singing, wast playing. 
Model For the Nominative case, and the Intransitive verb. 

1. / is a personal pronoun, personating the speaker, first person 

singular, and nominative to the verb am — by rule 6th — The 
subject of the indicative mood, is in the nominative case. 
Am is an indicative, present, intransitive verb, first person sin- 
gular, agreeing with its nominative /; by rule 1st. — Am 
agrees with the first person singular. 

2. Was indicative, preterit, intransitive verb, first person singular, 

agreeing with its nominative /; by rule 4th. — Was agrees 
with the first or third person singular. 

3. Thou,... personal pronoun, personating the one spoken to, second 

person singular, and nominative to goest; by rule 6th. — 
(Repeat the rule.) 

Goest indicative present intransitive verb, second person singular, 

agreeing with its nominative thou; by rule 2d. — The indica- 
tive is inflected to t, st, or est, agreeing with the second person 
singular. 

Wcntest indicative, preterit, intransitive verb, 2d per. sing, agreeing 

with its nom. thou; by rule 2d. — (Repeat the rule.) 

295, What is synthesis^ 296. What is the order of parsing a substantive?— A 
verbl 4K!)« Exercise 45. 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Syntactical Parsing, — Continued. 

rhas come, has spoken, has been gone. 

(hath come, hath been speaking, hath been gone. 

5. She had gone. She had been. She had been running. 

6. It will be. It shall appear. It may be going. 

7. We will have gone. We shall have been laboring. 

8. YoQ should attend. You, who might go, should attend. 

9. They would have been. They might have been watching 
10. Men are. Soldiers are marching. Rains are descending. 

Model For the JYominative case and the Intransitive verb. — Continued. 

4. He pers. pro. personating the one spoken of, 3d per. sing. mas. 

gen. and nom. to has come; by rule 6th. 
Has come . . . indie, pres.-perf. intrans. v., 3d per. sing, agreeing with its 
nom. he: by rule 3d. — The indicative present is inflected to s, 
es, or th, agreeing with the 3d person singular. 

5. She personal pronoun, 3d person singular, fem. gen., and nom. 

to had gone; rule 6th. 
Had gone. . . .indie, pret-perf., intrans. v., agreeing with its nom. she.* 

6. It pers. pro., 3d per. sing., neut. gen., and nom. to will be; 

rule 6th. 
Will he indie, future, intrans. v., agreeing with its nom. it. 

7. We pers. pro., 1st per. plural, and nom. to will have gone: rule 6th. 

Will have gone indie, future-per. intrans. v., agreeing with its nom. we. 

8. You pers. pro., 2d per. plural, and nom. to should attend; rule 6th. 

Should attend indie, imperf. intrans. verb, agreeing with its nom. you. 
Who arel. pro., relating to you, 2d per. plural; by rule 14th. — A 

pronoun agrees with its antecedent, in person, number, and 
gender. It is nom. to might go; by rule 6th. 

9. They a per. pro. 3d per. plural, and nom. to would have been; by 

rule 6th. 
Would have 

been. . . . indie, plu-perf. intrans v., agreeing with its nom. they. 

10. Men a common noun, 3d per. plural, and nom. to are; by rule 

6th. 
Are ........ indie, pres. intrans. v., plural, agreeing with its nom. men; 

by rule 5th. — Are and were are always plural, except when 
were, in hypothesis, agrees with the singular. 

* It may not be philosophically correct to say that verbs, without personal or nume- 
ral forms, agree with their nominative; but it seems as near correct as the popular rule, 
*' The nominative case governs the verb in number and person." We may say, I, he, 
we, you, or they, had gone; and there is no government in person and number; there* 
fore no rule need be applied for the agreement. 



I 



ETYMOLOGY. 77 

Syntactical Parsing — Continued 

11. Giants were. Flowers were blooming. Waters were lowing. 

12. (If) Washington were Cnow). Were Columbus living (yet). 
Model For the JVominative ca^e and the Intransitive verb. — Continued. 

11. Were indie, pret. intrans. v. plural, agreeing with its nom. giants: 

by rule 5th. (Repeat the rule.) 

12. WashingtoniproipeY noun, 3d per. sing, mas gen., and nom to were; by 

rule 6th. 

Were indie, pret. (hypothetical) intrans. v., agreeing with its 

nom. Washington; by rule 5th. 

EXERCISE 4^6.— Parsing. 

* Transitive. Passive. 

*^Thou ^tellest ^me. ^I ^am told. 

I feared ^thee. Thou ^wast feared. 

She Hms loved ''him. He ^has been loved. 

He had loved '^her. She had been loved. 

James will write it. It will be written. 

It could relieve us. We could be relieved. 

We shall have told you. You shall have been told. 

Who could have known them? They could have been known. 
They might have been hearing whom? Who might have been heard? 

Model For the Transitive verb and the Objective case. 

Tellest indie, pres. transitive verb, 2d per. sing., agreeing with its 

nom, thou; rule 2d. 
Me pers. pro. 1st per. sing, and objective case, the object of the 

transitive verb tellest; rule 7th. — When a substantive is the 

object of a transitive verb, it is in the objective case. (Parse 

all the sentences in full.) 
Am told indie, pres. passive verb, 1st per. sing., agreeing with its 

nom. thou. 



* The figure before a word refers to the number of the rule by which the word ii 
parsed. 



[Lesson 35.3 Exercise 46, i^f. 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE 47. — Parsing. 

^^My hand trembles. ^^Thy strength is failing. '^His books are soiled. 

Her pens were misplaced. Its branches were spreading. We will 

do our duty. Children should obey ^^their parents. I love ^"^-^him who 

loves his enemies. She met her mother ^^-''whom she loved. Brown 

has boys ^"^-^that have studied Dodd's Arithmetic. 

PflODEL For the Possessive Case, 

My is a personal pronoun, first person singular, and possessive 

case, pointing out the noun hand; by rule 15th — The pos- 
sessive case points out the substantive possessed. 

Their personal pronoun, personating children, 3d pers. plural, and 

poss. case, pointing out parents; by rule loth.- — (Repeat the 
rule.) 

EXERCISE 4 8. — Involving the first fifteen rules. 

*^oys, you are learning. ^^James., I admire your perseverance. 

^James, having improved, his teacher complimented him. 

Who formed our spirits? ^^He. Whose hand upholds us? ^^God's. 

Whom should we obey? Him. I am %e. Thou art ^Peter. It is ^I. 

We have become ^fools. They have fallen ^victims. They will arise 
conquerors. 

He was called ^Augustus. He was crowned emperor. I, ^^ Alexander 
am king. 

She, ^^Victoria, is queen. Mary has come ^^home. She has travelled 
miles. She has been taught ^^music. She has studied years. He has 
asked ^me something. I will answer %im nothing. I have taught her 
grammar. I will give her assistance. 

Models For six rules— from the 8th to the 13th, inclusive. 

12. Boys. ... is a common noun, 2d per. plural, and nominative case in- 

dependent; by rule 12th. — When a substantive is addressed 
or placed before a participle^ and there is no word on ichich 
its case depends, it is in the nominative case independent. 

13. He pers. pro., 3d pers. sing. mas. and in the nom. case, because 

the interrogative who is; by rule 13th. — A substantive used 
to answer a question agrees in case ivith the interrogative. 

Exercise 47. 

[Lesson 36.] Exercise 48. 



ETYMOLOGY. 79 

9. He ...... pers. pro. 3d per. sin^. mas., and in the nom. case because / 

is; by rule 9tb. — When a substantive follows an intransi- 
tive or a passive verb, and implies the same thing as the sub- 
ject of the verb, it agrees with the subject in case, 
11. Alexander pi'o-per noun, 1st per. sing, and in the nom. case, because it 
is in apposition to the nom. /; by rule 11th. — When one sub- 
stantive follows another to identify it, it agrees with the former 
in case, being in apposition to it. 

10. Home . . . common noun, 3d person singular, neut., and in the objec- 

tive case absolute, after the intransitive come; by rule lOth. 
When a substantive follows an intransitive or a passive verb, 
and implies a different thing from the subject of the verb, it is 
in the objective case absolute. 
8. The two substantives me and something are both in the objective case* 
the objects of the transitive verb has ashed; by rule 8th. — 
Two objectives may follow transitive verbs of asking, teach- 
ing, giving, and some others. 

EXERCISE 4 9. — Parsing. 

^^Traitor, depart! Thou ^'spirit, abide. Be you writing your epistle. 
Be ^^thou healed. *Reraember my admonitions. Do take advice. 
I am to teach. We saw him salute his friend. You are to be taught. 
You seem to have understood him. He seems to have been received. 
I wish him to remember me. She heard him speak. 
He appears to have been assisting them. 

Model For the Imperative and the Infinitive Mood. 

Depart is an imperative, present, intransitive verb, agreeing wii.h 

its subject, traitor. 

Be healed. . . .is an imperative, present passive verb, agreeing with its sub- 
ject thou. 

To be taught . i^ an infinitive, present, passive verb, agreeing with its 
subject you. 

* The imperative mood is often used without an actor or subject expressed; butf/z(m 
or you may be implied : as, Remember {you) my admonitions. 

It is thought by some that the actor or subject of the imperative, may be the first or 
third person, as well as the second: as, " Turn we to survey.^' " Thy kingdom come." 
" Be not the WMse ashamed." But these figurative expressions may imply elliptical 
forms of another mood: as, May we turn to survey. May thy kingdom come. Let not 
the muse be ashamed. 

[Lesson 37.] Exercise 49. C3^>- 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE 50. — Parsing. 
We had him released. Being released, he departed. Having been re- 
leased, he went home. We saw her rising. We saw her risen. We 
found them ^releasing 7him. Having forsaken her, he bade his friends 
adieu. Being studying his profession, he left society. Having been cul- 
tivating his imagination, he was respected. She being restored, we de- 
parted. They having fled, we returned. 

Model. ............... Far the Participle. 

Released is a passive participle agreeing with its subject him. 

Being released is an iraper. passive participle, agreeing with its subject he. 
Releasing. . . .imperfect transitive participle, 1st degree, agreeing with its 
subject them. 

EXERCISE 51. — Promiscuous Examples for Parsing. 

1 am Jesus, whom thou persecutest. 
We will adore our Creator who lias sustained us. 
I have forsaken my father, whom I should obey. 
I am leaving him whose kindness I shall remember. 
I do knov/ something which would satisfy him. 
I had heard tidings which I should have heeded. 
We could have heard truths which would have satisfied us. 
Susan was requesting her father to leave his habitation. 
She should persuade him to be removed. 
Richard will have completed his task. 
My son, remember your father's advice. 
Strive to improve. 

Thou art my friend. It is Jack, my servant. 
Whose miniature have you? My brother's. 
You appear to have forgotten your promise. 
Having lost his property, he resumed his studies. 
Being persuaded, she had her portrait drawn. 
Having been disappointed, she committed suicide. 
Hearing his mother praying, he was convicted. 
Having been laboring to secure his election, he finds his property 
squandered. Cease to do evil. 



* Participles have the same government as the principal verbs from which they are 
derived. 

Exercise 50. 

[Lesson 38.3 Exercise 51. 



ETYMOLOGY. 81 

ADJECTIVES. 

297. An Adjective is a word used to point out or describe 
a substantive : as, one deer ; forty white sbeep. 

298. Adjectives may be divided into two general classes : — 
Limiting and Describing. 

299. Limiting adjectives are used to point out or specify : 
as, one, two, this, that. 

300. Describing adjectives are used to describe, or to ex- 
press some quality : as, good, bad, high, loiv, 

limiting adjectives. 

301. Some limiting adjectives have a modification to distinguish num- 
ber: as, 

{Singular) — A, an, one, this, that, each, every, either, neither, and 
another. 

{Plural) — Two, these, those, both, several, many, few, divers. 

Such limiting adjectives as are used in counting and numbering, are called numeral 
adjectives: as, one, two, first second. 

Formulary Examples , 

Singular. Plural. 

A heart. Each pupil. Two men. Several pupils. 

An orange. Every book. These houses. Many books. 

One man. Either continent. Those farms. Few states. 

This house. Neither hemisphere. Both continents. Divers nations. 
That farm. Another state. 

Some have no distinction of number : as, 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

The heart. . . .The hearts. The former age. . .The former ages. 

Some man. . .Some men. The latter day. . . .The latter days. 

Any remedy.. Any remedies. The other disease. .The other diseases. 

Such vanity. .Such vanities. The same one The same ones. 

All fruit All fruits. More grass More grasses. 

302. All and more may limit a singular noun of quantity, but a plural 
noun of number : as, "All the fruit was gathered from all the trees." 

More grass would supply more horses. 

[Lesson 39.] 297. What is an adjective? — Examples. 298. What are the two 
general classes of adjectives ? 299. How are limiting adjectives used? — Examples. 
300. How are describing adjectives used ? — Examples. 301. What are limiting adjec- 
tives, that distinguish number, called 1 — Examples. — Name some adjectives that point 
out the singular number— some that point out the plural. 302. What may all and more 
Jim it T — Ex ample s . ( %y 



82 Ei^^GLlSH GRAMMAR. 

oOo. Most of the limiting adjectives are arranged under 
three divisions, viz : the Distributive, the Demonstrative, and 
the Iiidefiuite adjectives. 

304. Distributive. — Each, every, either, and neither, are call- 
ed distributive adjectives ; they are used when several things 
are taken separately or distributively : as, Each officer com- 
mands his company: Every soldier performs his duty: Either 
hemisphere : Neither hemisphere. 

Either and neither relate to two things or classes ; thus, we say, either 
or neither of the two ; but, any or none, of three or more. 

305. Demonstrative or Definite. — The, this and these, that 
and those, former and latter, are commonly used to point out a 
thing in a definite or particular manner. 

This refers to the nearest object or to the last thing mentioned, and 
that to the most distant object or to the first thing mentioned : as. This 
pen is better than that; or, in the plural. These pens are better than those. 
" Farewell my friends ! farewell my foes ! 
My peace with these, (foes,) my love with those" (friends). 

Former, refers to the first thing mentioned, and latter, to the last : as, 
" Fabius continued in the command with Minucius; the former's phlegm 
was a check upon the latter's vivacity." 

806. Indefinite. — A, an, any, some, such, other, and one, 
are commonly used to point out a thing in an indefinite or 
general manner : thus, when I say, '' Hand m.e a pen," I speak 
indefinitely, and mean a^^ypen; but when I say, "Hand me 
the pen, or that pen," I mean a particular or definite pen. 

( The is usually termed a definite article ; 



307. Articles."^ > . . . ^ . ^. , 

A or an, an mdennite article. 



* These articles are by some authors made a separate part of speech: but as that is 
an adjective, there seems to be no good reason why the should not be called an adjec- 
tive also, for they are used alike to point out a noun. As any is an adjective, why may 
not a or an be called an adjective also? V\''ebster, Butler, Wells, Greene, and many 
others, class them with the adjectives. 

303. How are most of the limiting adjectives arranged 7— Name them, 304. WTiich 
are distributives 7 — When used ? — Examples. 305. Which are demonstratives 1 — How 
used? — To what do this and that refer? — Examples.— To what do former and latter 
refer 1 — Examples, 306. Mention some indefinite adjectives. — How used 1— Exam- 
ples. 307. VMiat is the usually termed 7 — A or an ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 83 

308. A is used before words beginning with a consonant sound; as, 
A heart, a wonder, a one, a youth, a ewe, a union, a eulogy. 

Obs. I. One, ewe, union, and eulogy, begin with vowels, but they have a consonant 
sound, as if written, won, yew, etc. 

309. An is used before words beginning with a vowel sound: as, An 
orange, an apple, an honor, an hour. 

Obs. II. In the last two, the consonant h is silent, and the words have the vowel 
sound, as though they were spelled onor, our. 

310. Pronominals'''. — An adjective, when its noun is omit- 
ted, performs the office of a pronoun ; and it is then called a 
pronominal adjective : as, *'Many (persons) are called, but few 
are chosen." "He came unto his own (people) and his own 
received him not." " The last shall be first, and the first last." 
*' The onet shall be taken, and the other left." 

DESCRIBING ADJECTIVES. 

Comparison. 

311. Comparison denotes certain forms or variations of the 
adjective to express degrees of quality : as, Tall, taller, tallest. 

312. There are three degrees of comparison ; the Positive, 
Comparative, and Superlative. 

313. The Positive degree is expressed by an adjective in its 

simple state ; as, Susan is tall. 

In this expression we conceive a mere tacit comparison between Su- 
san's hight, and that of others of her age or sex. 

* " A pronominal adjective is a word that partakes of the nature of the pronoun and 
the adjective. 

When used to define a noun expressed, it is parsed as an adjective; but when em- 
ployed as a substitute for a. word or phrase, it is parsed as a pronoun. Thus, in the sen- 
tence: "Some cried one thing and some another," one is to be regarded as an adjective* 
but, in the expression, "Every one has his peculiar trials," one performs the office of a 
pronoun or substitute."— Wells. 

t One and other, in this example, are more properly indefinite pronouns, (415.) 

[Lesson 40,] 208, Before what words is a used? — Examples, — Do words, begin- 
nino- with a vowel, ever have a consonant sound? — Examples. 309. Before what 
words is an used? — Examples. — Do words, beginning with a consonant, ever have a 
vowel sound? — Examples. 310, What is an adjective called when its noun is omitted? 
Why so called? — Examples. i}i}. 331. What does comparison denote? — Examples 
312. How many degrees of comparison? — Name them, 313. How is the positive de- 
gree expressed? — Example 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

314. Remark i . We may use the positive degree to institute^ a 
comparison between persons of equal qualities; as, She is as tall as her 
sister. 

315. The Comparative degree denotes that the quality of 
one, is higher or lower than that of a different thing or class 
with which it is compared : as, Susan is taller than her sister. 
She is taller or loiver than all her sisters. 

316. Rem. ii. The quality is sometimes compared to itself in different 
states or conditions: as, She is taller now than she was then. She is taller 
than you think she is. 

317. The Superlative degree denotes that the quality of one 
is the highest or lowest of all the class in which it is implied : 
as, Susan is the tallest of the family. 

318. Rem. hi. We sometimes express the superlative of eminence 
without instituting any particular comparison: as, She is a most amiable 
lady. 

" Thus ornament is but the guile d shore 
To a most dangerous sea." — Shak. 

319. The positive degree is commonly followed by As: as, She is as tall 
as her sister. 

The comparative degree is followed by Than: as, She is taller than her 
sister. 

The superlative degree is followed by Of: as, She is the tallest of the 
family. 

Obs. Some grammarians are of opinion that when only4Fvvo things are 
compared, of should follow the comparative instead of the superlative: as, 
She is the better of the two. But Wells, Chandler, and others, think 
that the superlative may be used when there are but two things com- 
pared: as, " This is the best book of the two." — Chandler. " I think the 
English one rather the best of the two." — Lockhart. 

320. Adjectives of one syllable are commonly compared by annexing 
er and est to the positive form: as, Positive, old; Comparative, older; Su- 
perlative, oldest. 

321. Adjectives of more than one syllable are commonly compared by 

314. How may we use the positive degree? — Example. 315. What does the cora- 
parati%'e degree denote? — Examples. 316. Is the quality ever compared to itself? — Ex- 
amples. 317. What does the superlative degree denote? — Examples, 318. Can we 
express the superlative of eminence without instituting a comparison? — Examples. 

[Lesson 41.] 319. What degree is followed by as? — Example. — What by than? 
Example. — What by of? — Example. 320. How are adjectives of one syllable com- 
monly compared? — Examples. 321. How are adjectives of more than one syllable 
commonly compared? — Examples. 



I 



ETYMOLOGY. 85 

prefixing more and most, or less and least, to the positive form: as, Posi- 
tive, Aw/nawe; Comparative, more ^wmfflTze; Superlative, ?nos< humane: or, 
Positive, humane; comparative, less humane; superlative, least humane. 

Obs. Here the adjective itself is not varied to express degree, but it is 
the variation of the adverb prefixed that distinguishes the degree of the 
adjective. 

322. Dissyllables, ending in y or silent e, are frequently compared 
regularly by annexing er or est: as, Holy, holier, holiest — humble, hum^ 
bier, humblest. 

EXERCISE 5 2 
Compare the following adjectives: 

Model. — Positive, small; Comparative, smaller; Superlative, smallest. 
Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Small, smaller, smallest. 

Young, younger, youngest. 

Old, older or elder, oldest or eldest.* 

Much or many, more, most, 

Little, less, least. 

Good, better, best.f 

Bad, evil, or ill, worse, worst. 

Happy, happier, happiest. 

Nimble, nimbler, nimblest. 

Happy, more happy, most happy. 

Nimble, less nimble, least nimble. 

A kind of imperfect or diminutive degree may be expressed by annex- 
ing ish to the positive: as. Salt, saltish; i. e., somewhat salt. 

EXERCISE 53 .—Parsing. 
^^Some men have ^%reat wealth. ^Few escape trouble. 

Model , For the Adjective. 

Some is a limiting adjective, pointing out the noun men; by rule 

16th. — Adjectives point out and qualify substantives. 
Great. ...... is a describing adjective, positive degree, qualifying wealth; 

by rule 16th. — [Repeat the rule]. 
Few .^. is a pronominal adjective, 3d person plural, and nominative 

to escape; by rule 6th. 

* Elder and eldest are sometimes applied to people, but not to things: as, The elder 
Adams. 

t The genius of the language might seem to require the analogy, good, gooder, good- 
est, instead of good, better, best; but custom has established the one, and rejected the 
other. 

322. How are dissyllables ending in y or silent e often compared? — Examples. — Ex- 
ercise 52. i}0 Exercise .53. 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Parsing Exercise. — Continued. 

A serene mind makes a cheerful countenance. One man detests vice; 
another loves it. Some are happy. Many are miserable. Both causes are 
known. We are ^^apt to love them who do their %nown duties. 

William has been persuading his young friends to avoid ^^intoxicating 
drinks. This is true virtue. We saw the ^^greater portion consumed 
Sarah is an excellent girl. She is the ^'^best scholar. She that is kind, de- 
serves much praise. Robert, my son, be an attentive pupil. She being 
restored, we departed happy, believing her innocent. 

Having lost all his friends, he leads a retired life 

Ail ye are brethren. May true love abound. 

The ^^greatest man is he who accomplishes the most good. Each fail- 
ing to perform his part, neither could be received. 

Some persons, whom many call wise, may be esteemed fools. 

The most generous man is he who is most anxious to do benevolent 
deeds. 

Tiie sweetest flowers are beginning to 3'ield their delicious perfumes. 

Tiie Holy Scriptures w^ere given to light our benighted pathway. 

323. Rem. i. Numeral adjectives and their substantives must agree in 
number. 

Rem. II. The pronoun theni should not be used for the adjective those 
to point oat a noun. 

Rem. III. A is used before words beginning with a consonant sound, 
and an before those with a vowel sound. 

Rem. IV. Either and neither relate to two things or classes, and any and 
nonCf to more than two. 

EXERCISE 54 . — Improper Expressions. 
[Rem. 1.] The well is forty foot deep. The load weighs two ton. 
[Rem. 2,] Them books belong to me. Them are my sentiments. 
[Rem. 3.] A eagle is larger than a owl. There is an youth here that 
has seen many an one. 

[Rem. 4.] Neither of the stars of heaven, appears so large as either 
house in this town. 



[Lesson 42.] 323. What is said of nunreral adjectives and their substantives'? — 
The pronoun them? — How are a and an used? — To what do either and neitJier relate? 
Jlnu and vonc? — Exercise 54. ^ 3^^^ 



ETYMOLOGY. 87 

ADVERBS. 

324. An Adverb is a word use to modify a verb, an ad- 
jective, or another adverb : as. They walk gracefully. Very 
graceful ladies walk moBt gracefully, 

325. This part of speech is called adverb, because it is most generally- 
added or attached to the verb to qualify it; but it possesses none of the 
properties of a verb. 

326. The adverb, in some respects, resembles the adjective; but it may 
easily be distinguished from it by its modification, or by the office it per- 
forms in a sentence. 

327. In each of the following examples, the first qualifying word is an 
adjective, and the second is an adverb: thus, 

Mjec. Adv. 

Good men act well. 

Right men act right. 

It is wrong to act wrong. 

328. The termination ly^'is commonly a distinguishable difference be- 
tween the adverb of manner and the describing adjective: as. Wise men 
act wise-ly. 

329. Some adverbs, like adjectives, have degrees of compari- 
son : as, 

PositiTPB. Comparative. Superlative. 

Well, better, best. 

Often, oftener, oftenest. 

Fluently, more fluently, most fluently. 

Wisely, less wisely, least wisely. 

330. More and mos^, less and least, are often used as adverbs to distin- 
guish the degree of the adverb which they modify. 

33i . An adverb generally tells how, when, or where, the act is per- 
formed or the state exists. 

332. An adverb commonly expresses either manner, time, place, affir- 
mation, negation, or doubt. 

* There are but few adjectives that end in ly — holy, lovely, and goodly, are the prin- 
cipal ones. 

324. What is an adverb? — Examples. 325. Why is it called an adverb? — Does it 
possess any of the properties of a verb? 326. What does it resemble mostly? — How 
may it be distinguished from the adjective? 327. Give examples of adjectives and ad- 
verbs. 328. Mention a distinguishable difference between the adjective and an adverb 
of manner. — Example. 329. Do any adverbs have degrees of comparison? — Examples. 
330. What words are often used to distinguish the degree of the adverb? 331. What 
•loes the adverb generally tell? 332. What does it commonly express ? 

8 



Mv. 


Deg. 


honestly. 


POS. 


honestly. 


COMP. 


honestly. 


SUP. 


honest.* 





88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

833. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS CONTRASTED. 

Adverbs of Ma nner . 

'. Adv. Mjc. ^9.dv). 

Very honest men act how? very 

More honest men act " more 

Most honest men act " most 

Truly honest men act " truly 

Of Time, 

They walk when? now, then, still, yet, soon, often, frequently, seldom 
always. 

Of Place. 

5 here, there, where, 

hither, thither, whither, 
hence, thence, whence. 

Of Affirmation . 

Do they walk? yes, indeed^ certainly, truly, verily. 

Of N e g ation . 

They walk, not, never, nowhere. 

Of Louht. 

They walk, perhaps, perchance, may-he, possibly. 

There are more honest men than thieves. — More is an adjective pointing out men. 
He is a more honest man than a thief. — More is an adverb qualifying the adjective 
honest. 

334. Hither, thither, and whither; hence, thence, and whence, are equiva- 
lent to the following adjuncts: 



j^ Adjuncts. 

He came hither. zm To this place. 

He went thither. = To that place. 

V/hither didhego? = To what place? 
He goes hence. m From this place 

He will go thence, nzi From that place 
Whence did he come? zn From what place? 



* Here the adverb honest does not end in ly because its qualifying adverb truly ends 
in ly, and to give them both the same termination would produce a sound rather disa- 
greeable to the ear. We seldom say, exceedingly strangely, remarkably judiciously, etc. 



[Lesson 43.] 333. Contrast the adjective and the adverb of manner. — Mention 
some adverbs of time. — Some of place. — Of affirmation. — Of negation. — Of doubt. — 
In the example, 'There are more honest men than thieves,' what is more.?— He is a more 
honest man than a thief, what is more? 334. He came hither, hither is equivalent to 
what adjunct? (Answer to all the examples.) 



ETYMOLOGY. 89 

335, Hither, thither, and whither, are used mostly in solemn or grave 
style. 

EXERCISE 55 . — Parsing. 

We should ^^greatly respect those brave patriots who have ^'so ^^nobly 
defended our country's ^'^most sacred cause. 

I do not admire her extreme vanity. She, perhaps, had never seen a 
mansion so extremely fine. Remember now, my dear sir, one serious 
admonition. Mr. Burton, my worthy friend, write here, a very short 
note, which must be sent off immediately. I most certainly expected 
him to take his friend's last advice. I desired her to obey strictly her 
father's command. You there could have seen him walking *very ^"brisk- 
ly. We saw them all beaten very severely. Having become weary, the 
old man had lain down to rest his tired limbs. Give him, immediately, 
some refreshment. He has walked many miles alone. Are you not his 

friend? 

Model For the Adverb. 

Greatly is an adverb qualifying the verb should respect — by rule 17th; 

Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs 

So is an adverb qualifying the adverb nobly: by rule 17th. — 

[Repeat the rule.] 

Most is an adverb, superlative degree, qualifying the adjective 

sacred — by rule 17th. 
336. Rem. i. When the adverbial form is required, the adjective form 
should not be used. 

Rem. II. Two comparative or superlative forms should not be used to- 
gether. 

Rem. III. Two negatives should not be used to establish a negation. 

EXERCISE 56 . — Improper Expression's. 
[Rem. 1.] She acts prudent. She behaves discreet. She sings good. 
[Rem. 2.] He examines himself more oftener than any of us and there- 
fore he is the most wisest. 

[Rem. 3.] I did not go nowhere. I never sav/ nobody. I cannot ex- 
pect nothing. 

* Participles have the same government and are subject to the same qualifications as 
the principal verbs from which they are derived. See Syntax, Note 11. 

335. In what style are hither, thither, and whither, used? i}^^. Exercise 55. 

[Lesson 44.] 336. What is the usage when the adverbial form is required? — What 
is said of the use of two comparative and superlative forms? — Of two negatives? — Ex- 
ercise 56. iX) 



90 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PREPOSITIONS. 

337. A Preposition is used to connect words and show the re- 
lation between them : as, She smiles at grief; she looks to them. 

338. The office of the preposition is to coilnect a preceding word with 
the objective substantive which it governs. 

339. In the foregoing exanaples, the preposition at connects its pre-ce- 
dent smiles with its object grief. To connects its precedent looks with its 
object them. 

340. Looks, being intransitive, cannot govern the objective csise, and 
hence, the preposition to is used for that purpose. She does not look them 
but she looks to them. 

341. Any word that can be used with the pronoun them after it, must 
be either a transitive verb or a preposition: as I saw them: I saw him 
about them. 

342. Recollect that the preposition, like the transitive verb, governs 
the objective case, but it is not, like the verb, subject to inflection. 

343. In the example below, it will be interesting to observe the num- 
ber of prepositions used to connect the pre-ce-dent him with the objective 
them. 



I saw him 



r about, 


at, 


beyond, 


over, 


above, 


before, 


by. 


of. 


across, 


behind, 


down 


through, 


against. 


below, 


from. 


toward, 


along. 


beneath, 


for, 


under, 


• among, 


beside, 


in, 


with, 


«. around. 


between, 


on, 


without 



them. 



344. / looked across the street, over the fence, through the grate, into 
the prison. In this sentence, each preposition has its own respective ob- 
ject to govern, but the verb looked, is the precedent of them all. 
^ from Lexington. 
by Georgetown, 
I went <i down the turnpike. 
across the river, 
to Cincinnati. 

337. Define a preposition. — Examples. 338. Name the office of the preposition. 
339. In the example, '' She smiles at- grief," what does at connect? — In the sentence, 
<' She looks to them," what does fo connect? 340. In this example why is to used? 
341. What part of speech is any word that will make sense with them after it? — Exam- 
ples. 342. In what respect does the preposition resemble the transitive verb? — How 
does it differ from the verb? 343; In the following elliptical sentence, try how many 

prepositions you can employ to supply the ellipsis: — I saw him them. 344. Give 

examples in which many prepositions have the same precedent. 



ETYMOLOGY. 91 

EXERCISE 57 . — Parsing, 

Christ was crucified ^^between two ^^thieves. Napoleon Bonaparte re- 
sided several years on the desolate island of St. Helena. 

The declaration of independence was signed by a number of venera- 
ble personages, whose memory still lives in the hearts of their country- 
men. These were men whose desires for the prosperity of their country 
led them, at all hazards, to oppose, with mighty energy, the unjust op- 
pressions of the British Parliament. Turn thou away from him that is 
of an evil disposition of mind. Be not, young friend, too anxious for the 
world's vain applause. Children, be ready, at all times, to give me an- 
swers to the questions which I am now propounding to you. Who went 
with that young lady to her school? Her sister Emily. The carriage 
being light, they started at a rapid gait. You might have seen them run- 
ning swiftly over the new bridge. We had them turned immediately 
from the course leading to the precipice. Having halted at the edge of 
the river, they were fortunately warned of their great danger. 

The good works that men do in this world, will live after them: Let 
the evil be buried with their bones! We have often climbed to the sum- 
mit of the lofty mountain to view the city of the plain. 

I sat silently musing under the wide-spreading branches of a willow 
tree which stai^ds by the side of that classic stream. 

Model For the Preposition. 

Between is a preposition, connecting its precedent was crucified^ with 

its object thieves: by rule 18th. — A preposition connects its 
precedent with its object. 

Thieves a common noun, 3d person plural, objective case, the ob- 
ject of the prep ositioii between: by rule 19th. — When a sub- 
stantive is the object of a preposition, it is in the objective case. 

345. Rem. The nominative case should not be used as the object of a 
preposition. 

EXERCISE 58 .-—Improper Expressions. 

(Rem.) I come to thou. To he, I will not go. It was for she I 
bought it. This is between you and I. For we, he suffered. He calls 
upon ye all. We received it from they that made it. Unto who shall 
we go? 

[Lesson 45.] Exercise 57. 

[Lesson 46.3 345, Should the nominative case follow a preposition]— Exeroiw 58,, 



92. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

346. A CoDJunction is used to connect words or sentences. 

347. And, or, nor, than, as, because, for, hut, though, yet, if, unless, pro- 
vided, best, except, are the. principal conjunctions. 

348. And, or and nor, than, and as, sometimes connect words, and 
sometimes sentences or propositions. 

Co n ne cti n of Words, 

349. Rem. i. And, or and nor, connect words that have the same case 
or dependence: as. He and /teach: I shall teach him or her. He neither 
reads nor writes. 

Here, he and /, are alike nominative to teach; Him and her are both in 
the objective case, governed alike by the verb teach — the case of both de- 
pends upon the same verb. Reads and ifrri^es are both dependent alike 
upon the nominative he. 

Rem. II. Than and as connect substantives in the same case, but the 
words connected usually have a different dependence: thus, 
I teach him more than she. 
/ teach HIM more than her. 

These constructions are both correct, if correctly applied. In the first 
example, than connects the nominatives she and I, contrasted as teachers, 
but they are not dependent upon the same verb; for while / is nomina- 
tive to teach, she is supposed to be nominative to teaches understood: as, 
I teach him more than she teaches him. In the second example, than, 
connects the two objectives him and her, contrasted as pupils, and gov- 
erned by teach. As is used in a similar construction: as, I teach him as 
much as she: I teach him as much as her. 

C onn ectio n of Sentences. 

350. When verbs in different clauses have their respective nominatives 
expressed, the conjunction is used to connect the sentences or clauses: as, 

I will go and he will accompany m.e. 
I will go but he will not accompany me. 
I will go if he will accompany me. 

346. Define a conjunction'? 347. Name the principal conjunctions. 348. "Which are 
Bsedlo connect either words or sentences? C/O 349. What of and, or, and nor? — Ex- 
amples. — In the first of these examples, what is nominative to teach? — In the second, 
what is the object of teach? — In the third, what is he nominative to? — What of than 
and as? — '/ teach him more than she:' what does than here connect? — 'I teach him more 
than her:' what does than connect? — How is as used? — Examples. 350. "When is the 
conjunction said to connect sentences or clauses? — Examples. 



ETYMOLOGY. 93 

351. Grammarians usually divide the conjunctions into two classes: 
the Copulative and the Disjunctive conjunctions; but, as Mr. Wells very 
correctly remarks, the words belonging to this part of speech, do not ad- 
mit of a satisfactory division into classes. 

352. If it is necessary to class the conjunctions according to their 
functions, it would seem more rational to arrange them under three di- 
visions, as follows: 

1st. The Copulative; — And, than, as, for or because. 

2d. The Disjunctive; — Or, nor, but, though, yet, nevertheless. 

3d. The Conditional; — If, unless, provided, lest, except. 

353. Copulative conjunctions connect ideas of a similar tendency: as, 
The sun shines and the planets move. Men sink into the grave as leaves 
fall to the ground. We love him hecainie he first loved us. 

354. Disjunctive conjunctions connect ideas of an apposite tendency: 
as. We must be right or wrong. I am sinful, but thou art holy. Man is 
a worm of the dust, yet thou dost visit him. 

355. Conditional conjunctions subjoin a condition, supposition, etc : 
as. If thou forsake him, he will cast thee off forever. 

Obs. 1. It is not important that these divisions be named in parsing. 
Obs. 2. If the connecting word is not a relative pronoun, it must be a 
conjunction of some kind. 

ADYERBIAL CONJUNCTIONS. 

356. The adverbs of time and place: as, when, while, then, as, as soon as, 
after, before, etc., are frequently used as conjunctions to connect clauses, 
and are then called adverbial conjunctions : as, 

I will go when my country calls me. 

I will go where my country calls me. 

He may repent before he dies. 

He will stop after he has run his course. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

357. An interjection is an exclamatory word used to ex- 
press some passion or emotion of the speaker: as, 

Oh! Ah! Alas! Fie! Fudge! Away! Lo! Ho! Hark! Hush! 
Order! Silence! Ha! Really! Strange! Welcome! Hail! All hail! 

[Lesson 47.] 351. How do grammaiians usually divide the conjunctions? 352. 
What would seem a more rational division? — Name some copulative conjunctions. — 
Some disjunctive. — Some conditional. 353. What is the office of the copulative con- 
junction? — Examples. 354. Of the disjunctive? — Examples. 355. Of the condi- 
tional? — Example. i,%^. 356. Do adverbs of time and place ever connect clauses? 
—What are they then called? — Examples? 357. What is an interjection? — Examples. 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAFw. 

EXERCISE 5 9. — Parsing. 

I am now giving you examples involving the last rules, ^and I wish 
you to pay very particular attention to them. <'I live in pleasure ^when I 
live to thee." Julia is not so old ^^as they are, ^°but she is as apt to learn 
'^as they; she is certainly much more attentive ^than they. The assembly 
^^was large, and ^'it continued the whole week. The association ^were 
disputing about ^their church property. My brother ^Wd he ^are be- 
ginning ^"^tlieir evening*s task. Alexander and Napoleon were destroy- 
ers of their race. Sarah ^^or Julia ^has been drawing ^her own figure. 
The teacher or you ^^were there last week. 

^^Aias! I have greatly offended my dear and venerable father. 

" O, how wretched 
Is that poor man that hangs on princes' favors." 

He had occupied a worse situation than I, though he had enjoyed much 
better health. Who will be our successors, and occupy* our places when 
we are gone? Our sons and daughters, they who are to come after us. 
Give me liberty or give me death. Having parsed all the parts of speech 
in the language, you may analyze and parse some promiscuous examples, 
in prose and verse. Be careful to apply the rules when you parse a sen- 
tence. When you shall have finished these sentences in parsing, correct 
sundry examples in false syntax. 

*' Thirsting he toils across the plains that glow, 
And finds a waste of sand, where waters 
Seemed to flow." — Knight. 

Models For the Conjunction and Interjection. 

And is a conjunction connecting sentences; by rule 20. — Con- 
junctions usually connect sentences and phrases. 

As ......... is a conjunction connecting the two nominatives, s}i£ and 

tliey; by rule 22d. — Than and as connect substantives of the 
. same case, but any words or jjhrases so connected usually 
have a different dependence. 

Alas! is an interjection; rule 27th. — Interjections have no gram- 
matical connection with other words. 

* When the first of several words conjoined has an auxiliary or any other prefix, the 
same is understood to the last, unless differently expressed; hence we parse Mi^Z occupy. 



[Lesson 48.3 Exercise 59. 



^m 



ETYMOLOGY. 95 

EXERCISE 6 0. — Improper Expressions. 

Him and I are expected. Them and I will go. Me or they are to bo 
censured. She reads better than them. She writes as well as me. A 
difference exists between him and I. He sent for she or them. He or 
thou is to be blamed. He or James are learning their lesson. Susan and 
Mary is writing their compositions. 

EXERCISE 61 . — Parsing, 

The midnight moon serenely smiles 
O'er nature's soft repose; 
No low'ring cloud obscures the sky, 
Nor ruffling tempest blows. 

Now ev'ry passion sinks to rest, 
The throbbing heart lies still; 
And varying scenes of life no more. 
Distract the lab'ring will. 

The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, 
The lowing herd w^inds slowly o'er the lea, 
The ploughman homeward plods his weary way, 
And leaves the w^orld to darkness and to me. 

How sweetly flowed the gospel's sound 
From lips of gentleness and grace, 
When listening thousands gathered round, 
And joy and reverence filled the place. 

His house was known to all the vagrant train. 
He chid their wand'rings, but relieved their pain; 
The long remember'd beggar was his guest, 
Whose beard descending swept his aged breast. — 

Exercise 60. [Lesson 49.] Exercise 61 

9 



i 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Her golden hair stream'd free from band, 
Her fair cheek rested on her hand. 
Her blue eyes sought the west afar, 
For lovers love the western star. — 



The seraph calm'd each anxious fear; 
And kindly wip'd the falling tear; 
Then hasten'd with expanded wing 
To meet the pale terrific king. — Cotton. 

Monarchs! we envy not your state; 
We look with pity on the great, 
And bless our humbler lot. 

Daughter of faith, awake, arise, illume 
The dread unknown, the chaos of the tomb; 
Melt, and dispel, ye spectre-doubts, thai roll 
Cimmerian darkness on the parting soul!— 

Thou rising sun, whose gladsome ray 
Invites my fair to rural play. 
Dispel the mist and clear the skies, 
And bring my Orra to my eyes. 

Pity the sorrows of a poor old man, 

Whose trembling limbs have borne him to your door; 

Hie days are dwindled to the shortest span — 

O ! give relief, and heaven will bless your store. 

Come fair repentance, daughter of the skies! 

Soft harbinger of soon returning virtue! 

The weeping messenger of grace from heaven! 

Oh! thou who dry'st the mourner's tear, 
How dark this world would be, 
If, when deceiv'd and wounded here, 
We could not flv to thee! 



' 



ETYMOLOGY. 97 

When coldness wraps this suffering clay 
Ah! whither strays the immortal mind; 
It cannot die, it cannot stay 
But leaves its darkened dust behind. 

The meanest floweret of the vale, 
The simplest note that swells the gale, 
The common sun, the air, the skies 
To him are opening paradise. 

An inadvertent step may crush the snail 
That crawls at evening in the public path; 
But he that hath humanity, forewarn'd, 
Will tread aside and let the reptile live. 

While I sit with thee, I seem in heaven. 
And sweeter thy discourse is to my ear 
Than fruits of palm trees 

Trifles, light as air, 

Are, to the jealous, confirmation strong 

As proofs of holy v/rit. 

Old men and beldames in the street, 

Do prophesy upon it dangerously; 

Young Arthur's death is common in their mouths: 

And when they talk of him they shake their heads, 

And he that speaks doth gripe the hearer's wrist. 

While he that hears makes fearful action. 

With wrinkled brows, with nods, with rolling eyes. 



EECAPITULATION. 
ETYMOLOGY — CONTINUED. 

THE NOUNS. 

358. A noun is a word that expresses the name of an ob- 
ject. 

359. The term noun is derived from the Latin word nomen, signifying 
name. 

Men are human beings. 

Men is a word of one syllable. 
In the first example, the noun men is plural; but in the second, it is 
singular; for it here expresses the name of a mere combination of three 
letters. 

360. The name, simply, of any word is a noun: thus, in the sentence, 
* We can spell one, now, of, and, or, alas,'' these italic words are all nouns 
in the objective case, governed by the transitive verb can spell. 

361. Any word that assumes a case, is a substantive of some kind; 
thus, in the following examples, the italic words are all nouns; as, 

*' Nothing is there to come and nothing past; 
But one eternal now does always last." 
TJ comes after q. You dot your Vs and cross your Vs. Is is a verb. 
Of is Q. preposition. The shes of Italy should not betray. — Shak. 

362. The subject of the verb will answer to the interrogative who or 
what, placed before the verb: as, What does always last? Ans. Now, 
And whom or what placed after the verb or preposition, will conduct to 
the objective case: as. You dot what? Ans. Vs. U comes after what? 
Ans. Q. 

363. A phrase is often used substantively in the nominative case; it is 
then called a substantive phrase: as. To play is pleasant. Reading history 
is amusing. 

[Lesson 50.] 358. What is a noun? 359. From what is the term noun derived? 
360. What is the name of any word?— Examples. 361. What is any word that as- 
sumes a case? — Examples. 362. How can you distinguish the subject of a verb? — Ex- 
ample. — How the object of a verb or preposition? — Examples. 363. How is a phrase 
often used? — What is it then called? — Examples. 



ETYMOLOGY. 99 



COMMON NOUNS. 



364. A Common noun is a general name. 

365. Common nouns embrace, not only the general, substantial nouns, 
as river, mountain, town, but also the collective, participial, and abstract 
nouns. 

366. Collective. — A Collective noun implies many in one 
collective body : as, army, assembly, multitude ^ flock, 

367. Participial. — A Participial noun is a participle as- 
suming a case : as, Her playing delights me. 

368. Some nouns ending in ing are not called participial nouns, be- 
cause they are not derived from radical verbs : as. Morning, evening, hire- 
ling, nursling. 

369. Abstract. — An Abstract noun is the name of a quality 
abstracted or considered apart from the object to which it be- 
longs : as, Virtue, love, goodness, morality, wickedness, 

PROPER NOUNS. 

370. A Proper noun is a particular name : thus, Mercury, 

the name of a planet, is a proper noun ; but mercury, a metallic 

substance, is a common noun. Earth, the name of our globe, 

is usually called proper ; but when the word denotes soil or 

clay, it is a common noun. 

Obs. — Common names are sometimes made proper nouns, and proper 
names are sometimes made common nouns. 

371. Rem. i. When a common noun is personified proper, it is used as 
a proper noun : as "Oh Virtue! how amiable thou art!" "Come gentle 
Spring.^^ "Come genial Sleep^ 

Rem. II. Proper names, referring to a nation, race, or family, strictly 
denote a class, and are used as common nouns : as. The Romans. The 
Israelites. The Adamses. 

Rem. III. A proper name, singular, may be called a common noun when 
it conveys to the mind the idea of a species; thus, when speaking of any 

i.}i^. 364. What is a common noun 1 365. \'\niat do common nouns embrace 1 
266. What does a collective noun imply ? — Examples. 367. What is a participial 
noun? — Example. 368. Are all nouns ending in fng- called participial nouns ? — Ex- 
amples. 369. What is an abstract noun 7 — Examples. 370. W^hat is a proper noun? — 
Example. 371. When a common noun is personified proper, how is it used ? — Ex- 
amples. — When proper names refer to a nation, race, or family, how are they used 1 — 
When may a proper name singular be called common ? 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. . 

celebrated philosopher, we call him the Franklin of his country — ^mean- 1 
ing a philosopher such as Franklin : or of an orator, we say, He is the I 
Cicero of the age — meaning an orator resembling Cicero. 

THE PERSONS. 

372. The first person denotes the speaker: as, ''Paul, an 
apostle, &c., unto Timothy, my own son in the faith;" That is, 
I, Paul 

373. The second person denotes the one spoken to : as, '' 
my soul ! thou hast said unto the Lord," &c. Let me abide 
instead of him a bondman to thee. 

374. The third person denotes that which is spoken of: as, 
*' Let thy servant abide instead of the lad a hondman to my 
lord:' 

In the last example, Judah speaks of himself under the appellation of 
a servant, (3d per.) and addresses Joseph, calling him his lord, (3d per.) 

In like manner, an author sometimes uses the term author in the third 
person, though the term refers to himself: as. The author of this work is 
not sanguine; that is, / am not sanguine. 

THE NUMBERS. 

375. The plural number of nouns is commonly formed by 
annexing s or es to the singular form. 

376. The letter s forms the plural of such singular nouns as 
end in a, e, u, or w, and in o or y after a vowel. 

EXAMPLES. 
Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

(a) Stanza. . . .stanzas Pea peas, (distinct objects.) 

(e) Pie pies Die (for coining) dies. 

(u) Gnu gnus Landau landaus. 

(lo) Cow cows* Swallow swallows. 

(o) Folio folios Bamboo bamboos.f 

(y) Key keyst Toy toys. 

* Kine was formerly used as the plural of Cow. 

t Tico, having the sound of double o, has its plural tzcos. 

t Chimneys and inoneys are often written chimnies, monies. 

[Lesson 51.] 372. What does the first person denote ?— Examples. 373. The 
second person? — Examples. 374. The third person? — Example. 375. How is the 
plural of nouns commonly formed ? 376. Of what singular nouns does s form the plu- 
ral 1 — Spell the plural of stanza : of pea. (Answer to all the examples.) t>^>. 



ETYMOLOGY. 101 

377. The termination es forms the plui'al of such singular 
nouns as end in x, 5, sh, ch soft, and in o or y after a conso- 
nant. 

EXAMPLES. 

Singular, Plural. Singular. Plural. 

(x) Tax. ...... .taxes Box boxes. 

(s) Gas ... gases Miss misses. 

(sh) Lash lashes Sash sashes. 

(ch soft) Church*. . . .churches Crutch crutches, 

(o) Veto vetoes Portico porticoes.f 

(y) Ladyt ladies , ..Penny (a coin), .pennies. 

378. Some nouns inf ovfe, have ves in the plural, the/ be- 
ing changed to v : as, 

(/) Calf calves. Half halves. 

(fe) Wife wives Knife knives. 

In this way we form the plural of beef, thief, leaf, sheaf, elf, self, shelf, 
life, loaf, wolf, wharf. § 

379. The following add s only : as, brief, chief, fief, grief, handker- 
chief, hoof, proof, reproof, roof, dwarf, scarf, wharf, gulf, turf, cliff, 
sheriff, skifF, whifF, cuff, muff, puff, ruff, snuff, stuff, fife, strife, safe. 



* When ch has its hard sound, s is added to form the plural : as, Monarchs, distichs. 

t Some form the plural of portico, junto, canto, tyro, grotto, solo, halo, quarto, oc- 
tavo, zero, and memento, by annexing s only , but others, thinking it better to have 
uniformity of usage, form the plural of these words by annexing es. 

t The singular nouns that now end in y, formerly ended in ie : as, glorie, vanitie | 
and the s was added to form the plural : as, glories, vanities ; — this accounts for the 
irregular termination of ies in the plural. When, however, y ends a proper name, it is 
not always changed to ies in the plural : as, the Henrys. 

§ Wharf often has its plural formed by annexing s only ; and staff, when it denotes a 
walking-stick, has staves in the plural : but the compounds of staff are formed regu- 
larly : as, flag-staff, flag-staffs. 



377. Of what singular nouns does es form the plural ? — Spell the plural of tax : of 
lox. — (Answer to all the examples.) 378. How is the plural of some nouns in / or fe 
formed 1 — Spell the plural of calf: of half. — (Answer to all the examples.) 379. Spell 
the plural of brief: of chief. — (Answer to all the examples.) 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

380. Some nouns form their plural very irregularly : as, 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Man men. Tooth teeth. 

Woman women. Goose geese. 

Child children. Mouse mice. 

Foot feet. Louse lice. 

Ox oxen. Penny pence. 

Brother brethren, (of the same society). 

Die dice, (for gaming). 

Pea pease, (the species). 

Court-martial . . courts-martial. 
Brother-in-law . brothers-in-law. 

In compound words, the word denoting the principal idea, is some- 
times placed last : as. Hand-fulls. 

Some nouns are used only in the singular number ; some only 
in the plural ; and some alike in both numbers. 

381. Singular. — News, and the names of qualities, sciences, and of 
such things as are weighed or measured, are construed as the singular : 
as. Pride, mathematics^ gold, flour, molasses, wine, grass, tea. But when 
different kinds are spoken of, the plural is given : as, The wines of 
France ; The grasses of Kentucky : The teas of China. 

382. Plural. — Shears, scissors, tongs, snuffers, nippers, pinchers, clothes, 
hreeches, lungs, bitters, ashes, embers, vespers, and some others, are plural. 

383. Both numbers. — Sheep, deer, swine, fsh, trout, salmon, pains, alms, 
bellows, amends, means, riches, wages, brace, dozen, pair, head, and some 
others, are employed in both numbers : as. That deer, those deer. A 
head of hair, forty head of cattle. One brace of ducks, six brace of 
ducks, or six pair of ducks. 

Dozen, brace, and pair, often have their regular plural ; as. We buy 
ducks by dozens, in braces or pairs. 

384. Horse and foot, denoting bodies of soldiers ; sail, a collection of 
ships; and cannon and shot, are often used technically in the plural. 

[Lesson 52.] 380. Name the plural of man : of woman. — (Answer to all the exam- 
ples.) 381. What nouns are construed only as the singular number ? — When may the 
plural form be given ? — Examples. 382. Mention some that are always plural. 383. 
Mention some that are used alike in both numbers. — Which sometimes have their 
regular plural ? 384. Mention some other singular forms that are used technically in 
chepluraH <>^>. 



I 



ETYMOLOGY. 



103 



385. NouDS adopted from foreign languages generally retain 
their original plural : thus, When their singular ends in um or 
on, their plural ends in a. When their singular ends in is, 
their plural ends in es. 

Singular. Plural. 

Axis axes. 

Basis bases. 

Crisis crises. 

Thesis theses. 

Hypothesis hypotheses. 

Metamorphosis. . . .metamorphoses. 

Emphasis emphases. 

ElHpsis ellipses. 

Antithesis ...... .antitheses. 

Calx .calces. 

Apex apices. 

Vortex vortices. 

Vertex vertices. 

(Appendix appendices.) 

(Index indices.) 

(Cherub cherubim.) 

(Seraph seraphim.) 

(Beau beaux.) 

Monsieur messieurs. 

Apparatus apparatus. 

386. Those marked ( ) in the list, sometimes have their regular plural : 
as, Memorandums, encomiums, mediums, geniuses, stamens, appendixes, 
indexes, cherubs, seraphs, beaus. 

387. Genii signifies aerial spirits ; but geniuses, persons of ingenuity. 

388. Indices, exponents of algebraic quantities ; but indexes, pointers 
or tables of contents. 

389. Monsieur is the French word corresponding to the English Mas- 
ter, (Mr.;) and its plural. Messieurs, is commonly contracted into Messrs. : 
as, Messrs. Gales & Seaton. • • • • 

390. Misses is the plural title for unmarried ladies : as. The Misses 
Bell. The title is commonly thus pluralized when addressing letters to 

385. When a singular noun, adopted from a foreign language, ends in um or o%, what 
termination is generally retained in the plural? — When is ends the singular, what ends 
the plural? — What is the plural of memorandum ? — (Answer to all the examples.) 

[Lesson 53.] 386. To which of these is sometimes given the regular plural? 387. 
Define gemi and geniuses. 388. Define indices and indexes. 389. What does Mon- 
sieur signify ? — Into what is its plural Messieurs contracted ? — Examples. 390. What 
does Misses signify ? — Examples for addressing letters to several of the same name.- — 
In colloquial style, do we usually pluralize the name or the title ? — Examples. 



Singular. Plural. 

(Memorandum, .memoranda.) 

(Encomium encomia.) 

(Medium media.) 

Stratum , . .strata. 

Erratum errata. 

Effluvium effluvia. 

Anamalculum . .anamalcula. 

Arcanum arcana. 

Datum data. 

Phenomenon. . . .phenomena. 

Automaton automata. 

(Stamen stamina.) 

(Genius genii.) 

Genus genera. 

Alumnus alumni. 

Radius radii. 

Stimulus stimuli. 

Focus foci. 

Magus magi. 

Ignis-fatuus ignis-fatui. 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

several of tlie same name; but in colloquial style, we usually pluralize 
the name instead of the title : as, The Miss Bells, the Mr. Mortons. 

391. Some foreign words are used only in the plural : as, Antipodes, 
titerati, credenda, minuticB, annals. 

Some are used alike in both numbers : as, Apparatus, hiatus, series, 
species. For the singular of literati, we say one of the literati ; — for the 
singular of bandiiii, we say bandit, or one of the banditti. 

EXERCISE 62. 

Write or spell the plural of : 

Formula, hue, bureau, pew, nuncio, embryo, tattoo, valley, patriarch, 
climax, marquis, wish, ditch, cargo, story, thief, life, grief, sheriff, fife, 
epoch, cameo, wolf, recipe, diploma, caucus, pony, sex, era, ejf, Scipio, 
clay, alloy, erratum, phenomenon, stamen, genius, genus, radius, thesis. 

THE GENDERS. 

392. The Sexes may be distinguislied by nouns iu three 
ways, viz : First, by different words : as, Man, woman. Se- 
condly, by attaching another word : as, Male- servant, female- 
servant ; and, thirdly, by a difference in termination : as, Wid- 
ower, widow. 

1st. By different words. 

Boy girl. Lord lady. 

Lad lass. King queen. 

Beau belle. Friar or monk . . .nun. 

Bridegroom. . .bride. Wizard witch. 

Husband wife. Sloven slut. 

Papa mamma. Horse mare. 

Father mother. Male female. 

Son daughter. Bull cow. 

Widower widow. Bullock or steer . heifer. 

Bachelor maid. Hart roe. 

Brother. .... ..sister. Stag hind. 

Uncle aunt. Ram or buck. . . .ewe. 

Nephew niece. Dog bitch. 

Sir madam. Gander goose. 

Swain nymph. Cock hen. 

Master mistress. Drake duck. 

2d. By attaching anotJier word. 

Jvlan servant. ..maid servant. Land-lord land-lady. 

'Male coquette. female coquette. He-bear she-bear. 

391. Mention some foreign words that are used only in the plural; — some that are 
used alike in both numbers. — The singular of literati : of banditti. \ 3^). Exercise 62. 

[Les. 54.] 392. In what three ways are nouns used to distinguish sex ^—WhdX female 
name corresponds to hoy 7— To lad 7— Ho beau .?— (Answer to all the examples.) i %}. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



105 



Sd. By a difference in termination 

Female. 



Male. 

Abbot 

Actor actress. 

Adulterer adulteress. 

Ambassador ambassadress. 

Administrator . ..administratrix 

Baron baroness. 

Chanter cbantress. 

Conductor conductress. 

Count countess. 

Czar. czarina. 

Deacon deaconess. 

Duke duchess. 

Don donna. 

Elector electress. 

Emperor empress. 

Enchanter enchantress. 

Governor governess. 

Giant giantess. 

God goddess. 

Heir heiress. 

Hero heroine. 

Hunter huntress. 

Host hostess. 

Jew Jewess. 



Male. Female. 

Lion lioness. 

Landgrave landgravine. 

Margrave margravine. 

Marquis marchioness. 

Mayor mayoress. 

Patron patroness. 

Peer peeress. 

Poet poetess. 

Priest priestess. 

Prince princess. 

Prior prioress. 

Prophet prophetess. 

Protector protectress. 

Seamster seamstress. 

Shepherd shepherdess. 

Songster songstress. 

Sorcerer sorceress. 

Sultan sultaness or sultana. 

Testator testatrix. 

Tiger tigress. 

Traitor traitress. 

Tutor tutoress. 

Viscount viscountess. 



Votary votaress. 

.393. Some nouns of the masculine, and some of the feminine gender, 
are occasionally used to involve both sexes by implication, and are called 
by some authors, e^oicerze nouns : as, " Hast thou given the horse strength? 
Hast thou clothed his neck with thunder ?" '*The goose is a gregarious 
bird." 

394. In such usage, those animals remarkable for boldness, strength, 
&c., are represented in the masculine gender; and those remarkable for 
timidity, weakness, &c., are represented in the feminine gender. 

395. Some objects, naturally without sex, as the sww, timei death, win- 
ter, war, river, &c., are, on account of their great strength and efficacy, 
represented by a figure of speech, (536) in the masculine gender : Thus 
we say of the sun. He is setting. 

"Time rolls his ceaseless course." — Scott. 

" Why start at death I where is he ?" — Young. 

393. What is an epicene noun made to involve 1 — Examples. 394. How are animals 
represented by epicene nouns % 395. Mention some objects without sex that are re- 
presented figuratively in the masculine gender. — Give examples. 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

396. Other objects, as the moon, morning, earth, country, church, ship, 
firtune, virtue, etc., are frequently, on account of their fruitfulness, beauty, 
or amiability, represented in the feminine gender; thus, We say of the 
moon, 'She is rising;' or of a ship, *She sails well.' 

" Now morn, her rosy steps in eastern clime 
Advancing." — Milton. 

THE PRONOUNS. 

397. A pronoun is a word that supplies the place of a noun. 

398. Pronoun is derived from the Latin pronomen — Pro, for, and no- 
men, a name. 

399. Pronouns are of four kinds; Personal, Relative, Pos- 
BGSsive and indefinite : as, Myself, whoever, mine, ones. 

400. Reflective Personal Pr onouns , 

Singular. Plural. 

Myself, Ourselves. 

Thyself, Yourselves. 
Himself, ^ 

Herself, > Themselves. 
Itself, J 

401. Compound R elativ e Pronouns, 

Whoever, what, whatever, whichever. 

402. Possessive P rov.ouns , 

Mine, Ours. 

Thine, Yours. 

«^^' \ Theirs. 

Hers,) 

403. Indefinite Pronouns. 
Ones, others, none. 

396. Others that are represented in the feminine gender. — Give examples. 

[Lesson 55.] 397. Wliat is a pronoun? 398. From what is the term pronoun de- 
rived? 399. How many kinds of pronouns? — Name them. — Examples. 400. Name 
the reflective personal pronouns. 401. The compound relative pronouns. 402. The 
possessive pronouns. 403. The indefinite pronouns. 



ETYMOLOGY. 107 

404. Self and selves are frequently affixed to the possessive form of the 
first and second persons, and to the objective form of the third, as in the 
above examples. 

"TAom thyself woiddsi have set thyself against me." Thyself, in the 
first example, is used for the sake of emphasis or distinction in the nom- 
inative case in apposition to thou. In the second example, it is reflective, 
in the objective case, for the agent is here represented as the object of his 
own action. These are called personal pronouns of the reciprocal or re- 
flective kind. They are used alike in the nominative and the objective 
case, but not in the possessive. 

405. Whoever, what, whatever and whichever, are commonly used as 
compound relative pronouns, being equivalent to two diffiirent substan- 
tives, the antecedent and the relative: as, Whoever disobeys the law, de- 
serves punishment; i. e., he who disobeys the law, deserves punishment; 
or, any one who disobeys the law deserves punishment. 

In this sentence there are two verbs {disobeys (tnd deserves) that require nominatives, 
and both nominatives are implied in whoever. 

J^om. Poss. Obj. 

406. Whoever, whosoever, whomever; or, 
Whosoever, whosesoever, whomsoever. 

The compound relative is equivalent to both the antecedent and the 
simple relative. 

407. Whomsoever is equivalent to the two objectives, him whom: as, 
*He chastens whomsoever he loves,' = He chastens him whom he loves; 
or any one whom he loves. But when the implied antecedent and rela- 
tive are not both required to be in the objective case, whoever or whosoever 
is employed: as, "He chastens whoever disobeys him" = he chastens any 
one who disobeys him. 

408. What.* — The compound relative what, as well as whoever, what- 

* What, although a simple word, is nevertheless used to supply the place of two 
words, and is therefore commonly parsed as a compound relative, equivalent to an an- 
tecedent and a relative. Prof. Butler thinks it incorrect to parse what and the compound 
relative whoever, as each being equivalent to an antecedent and a simple relative. He 
argues, that these words are used because the antecedent, being indefinite, is omitted. 
The relative what, he very correctly observes, is never used except when the antece- 
dent is omitted — that, "if the antecedent is restored to its place, which must follow 
and not what." I conclude therefore, Ihat as what stands in the place of both an ante- 
cedent and a simple relative, and cannot be used when the antecedent is expressed, it 
is not improper to say that it is equivalent to the antecedent and the relative, and to 
parse both what and whoever in this compound capacity. 

404. How are the reflective pronouns formed? — In what cases are thfey used? i,}^^ 
405. To what are the compound relatives equivalent? — Example. — To what is who- 
ever equivalent? 406. Decline whoever. 407. To what is whomsoever equivalent? — 
Examples. — When is whoever employed? 408. To what is the compound relative 
what, equivalent? — Examples. 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ever, and whichever, is usually equivalent to an antecedent and a simple 
relative: as, Eat what is set before you = Eat that which is set before you. 

Whatever is worth doing, is worth doing well = Any thing that is worth 
doing, is worth doing Vv^ell. 

I repeat what was said = I repeat that which was said. 
I told WHAT I knew = I told that which I knew. 

409. When the antecedent is expressed, the compound relative is equiva- 
lent to the adjective and the simple relative: as, 

Take whatever book pleases you = Take any book that pleases you. 
Take whichever pattern you prefer ^^^^ Take thai pattern which you 
prefer. 

410. Mine,^ thine, his, hers, ours, yours, and theirs, imply the possessor 
as well as the thing possessed, and are therefore called possessive pro- 
nouns. None of these, however, need be parsed as a compound word; 
for the principal thing to be considered in the syntax, is the object pos- 
sessed. If the object referred to, is singular, the possessive pronoun is 
called singular; and if plural, the pronoun is plural: as, Mine is finished: 
mine are finished. 

411. The possessive pronouns are not, like my, thy, his, her, our, your, 
and their, personal pronouns in the possessive case; for the thing pos- 
sessed does not come after them, but is implied in them. The term posses- 
sive, as here used, involves simply the kind of pronoun, and not the case 
of the pronoun. 

412. The possessive pronouns may be in either the nominative or ob- 
jective case, but not in the possessive case. We may say, 'Ours is a 
strange world:^ or, ' This is a strange world of ours;\ but not, ours loorld! 

* In grave discourse and in poetry, mi7ie and thine are sometimes used as simple per- 
sonal pronouns in the possessive case: as, " Miiu hour is not yet come." <'If tJiine 
enemy hunger feed him." 

"Time writes no wrinkles on thine azure brow." — Byron. 

t Some grammarians teach that both the possessor and the thing possessed should 
be parsed thus: ^Ours is a strange icorlcL' = 'Our world is a strange world.' But in 
the sentence, this is a strange world of ours, it would seem very barbarous to construe 
this into, 'This is a strange world of our zcorld! ' 

I repeat what was said, equals what?— JioM ichat I kneza, equals what? 409. "When 
the antecedent is expressed, the compound relative is equivalent to what? — Examples. 

[Lesson 56.] 410. Name the possessive pronouns. — Why are they called possessive 
pronouns? — Need they be parsed as compound words? — Why not? — How is the num- 
ber of the possessive pronoun to be distinguished? — Examples. 411. Are the possessive 
pronouns used, like personal pronouns, in the possessive case? — "VMiy not? — "V^Tiat does 
the term possessive involve? 412. In what cases may the possessive pronouns be 
ustd? — Examples. 



ETYMOLOGY. 109 

413. The attributes of the possessive pronoun are not determined by 
the possessive or personal part of this pronoun, but by the thing possessed; 
thus, Oiii'S, in the last example, is not first person plural and possessive 
case, as the form our would seem to indicate, but it is third person singu- 
lar, reff^rring to world. 

414. It is easy to determine whether the possessive pronoun implies 
unity or plurality; thus, in the sentence, < This book is yours,' yours is 
third person singular, referring to book; but in the sentence, * These books 
are yours;' yours is third person plural, referring to books. 

415. One, others and another, singular, as well as the plurals, ones and 
others, may be called indefinite pronouns when a substantive cannot be 
conveniently placed after them: as. The boy caught the young birds and 
killed the old one: They love each other: They assist one another. 

In these examples, one, other, and another, are not pronominal adjec- 
tives, for we cannot say, the old-one bird: They love each other bird: 
They assist one another bird. 

416. Declension of Indefinite Pronouns. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

JVom. Poss. Obj. Nom. Poss. Ohj. 

One, one's. .. .one. Ones,. .. .ones,. .„ .ones. 

Other,. . . other's. . other. Others,. . others',, .others. 
Another, . another's, another. 

41 7. None is used alike in both numbers: as, " None performs his duty 
too well." "None that go unto her return again." 

418. The expression each other, usually refers to two only, but, one 
another, to more than two: as, 7'hese two love each other: These three 
love one another. 

EXERCISE 63 . — Parsing. 

(Reflectives.) Judas departed, and went and hanged himself. 
Thou thyself wouldst ?iave set thyself against me. Mercy is an attri- 
bute of God himself. 



413. How are the attributes of the possessive pronouns determined? — Examples. 
414. In the sentence, ' This book is yonrs,' what person and number is yours? — To 
what does yours refer? — in the sentence, ' These books are yours,' what person and 
number is yours? — To what does yours refer? C3^^ 415. When may one, other, and 
another, be called indefinite pronouns? — Examples. — In these examples, why may not 
one, other, and another, be called pronominal adjectives? 416. Decline the indefinite 
pronouns. 417. Hov^^ is the indefinite pronoun ri07Z(?, used? — Examples. 418. To what 
does the expression each other refer? — Onr anoihcr? — Example^. 

[Lesson 57.3 Exercise 0.1, 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(Compou u- Relatives.) Whoever will be a friend of the world is an 
enemy of God. They obey whosoever commands them. They submit 
to whomsoever the king appoints. They do what is commanded. She 
understands whatsoever I say. Give him instruction in whatever branch 
he is to learn. You may take whichever pattern suits you best. 

(Possesaives.) This book is mine, but that is yours. His deeds are 
evil, but thine are good; hers are better than his. 

{Indefinites.) He has read every one of his books, and the latest ones 
are very large. The small girls love one another, but the larger ones 
disagree. None escape censure. None is so blind as he that will not see. 

Model For the Reflective Pronoun. 

Himself is a reflective personal pronoun, personating Judas, 3d per. 

sing. mas. gen. and obj. case, the object of hanged; by 
rule 7th. 

Model For the Compound Relative Pronoun. 

Whoever is a compound relative pronoun, equivalent to he who. 

{Parse the antecedent and relative in full) 
What is a compound relative pronoun, equivalent to the antece- 
dent that and the relative which. 
Whichever. . . is a compound relative pronoun, equivalent to the adjective 
that, and the relative wJiich. 

Model For the Possessive Prmioun. 

Mine is a possessive pronoun, referring to book, 3d per. sing, neu^" 

and nom. after is; by rule 9th. 

Model For the Indefinite Pronoun. 

One is an indefinite pronoun, referring to book, (or books ta- 
ken separately,) 3d per. sing. neut. and obj. case, the object 
of has read; by rule 7th. 

Remarlcs on the Pronouns. 

419. Rem. i. Thou is used in addressing the Deity, and it frequently 
represents also im.portant objects in nature: as, "Lord thou hast been our 
dwelling-place in all generations." 

" Roll on thou deep and dark-blue ocean — roll." 

420. Rem. ii. You, formerly, was used to represent only plural nouns* 
At length it became customary, it is said, to employ this pronoun as a mark 
of pre-eminence in addressing a person of distinction; but now generous 
courtesy extends this ancient mark of flattery to every object in nature. 

[Lesson 58.] 419. What is said of tAo?^.^— Examples . 420. What is said of you? 
Do the Friends use thou, or you, in the singular? 



ETYMOLOGY. Hi 

The Friends, or Quakers, however, who never yield to the world's fashion, 
if they can help it, still retain the uniform use of thou in the singular. 

421. Rem. hi. We is used by a monarch to represent himself, by way 
of pre-eminence. Editors of periodicals and some public speakers, use 
we for /, because perhaps, it savors less of egotism, and for other reasons. 
The plurals we and you are thus made to refer to an individual by the fig- 
ure enailage (537). See figures of syntax, part iii. 

422. Rem. iv. Which was formerly used occasionally to represent in- 
telligent beings: as, " Our Father, which art in heaven." 

423. Rem. v. Which is sometimes employed to represent a name, used 
merely as a word: as, " Herod, which is but another name for tyranny." 

424. Rem. vi. Which, that and what are frequ ently used as adjectives 
and pronominals: as. Which pattern is best? Which is your father? 
Take that book« Bring that to me. '' What havoc hast thou made, foul 
monster sin! " What ails thee? 

425. Rem. vii. Whatever is sometimes used to render a word emphatic: 
as. No country whatever is superior to this. 

THE VERBS. 

426. A Verb is a word that expresses an act or a state. 

427. The term verb is derived from the Latin verbum signifying word 
< — the principal word in a sentence. 

428. Verbs are divided into Transitive, Intransitive, and 
Passive ; and these are subdivided into Eegular, Irregular, and 
Defective. 

429. Transitive. — Almost all verbs may be used transi- 
tively: as, To live tlie life of the righteous. To sleep the 
sleep of death. To grin a ghastly smile. "Her lips blush 
deeper sweets." '* They laughed him to scorn." 

"I sing- the shady regions of the west 
Afid smile the wrinkles from the brov/ of age." 

430. INTRANSITIVE.~^??^, seem, appear, dwell, come, go, rise, 
fall, sit, and lie, (to recline) are properly always intransitive. 

421. How does a monarch use we? — Why do editors use we instead of I? — We and 
you are made to refer to an individual by what figure? 422. How was which formerly 
used? — Example. 423. How is which now sometimes used? — Examples. 424. How 
are which, that, and what frequently used? — Examples. 425. How is whatever some- 
times used?— Example, < X) 426. What is a verb? 427. From what is the term 
verb derived? 428. How are verbs divided?— How subdivided? 429. How may nearly 
all verbs be used?— Examples. 430. Mention some verbs that are always intransitive. 

10 



^^2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

431 Rem Those verbs that are used to express a mere state of being 
are called verbs of being, (neuter verbs,): as, Am, become, seemjeel, look, 
appear. , , ^. . ., 

432 Obs It is easy to determine whether the substantive followmg a 
verb, is used to identify the subject of the verb according to rule 9th, or 
whether it is governed by the verb according to rule 7th; Examples: 

She has become a woman, and it becomes her to act prudently. 
He, who lives a christian, lives'^ a moral life. 

433 A transitive verb and a preposition, occurring together, cannot 
both have the same regimen; hence, when the verb is transitive, the pre- 
position, being without a regimen, becomes an adverb; thus, 

He moved up the ladder = He moved the ladder up. 

But when the verb is intransitive the preposition governs the object: 

thus, . j.1. 

He moved up the ladder = He ascended, without movmg anythmg. 

To avoid ambiguity, it is generally best to place the object immediately 
after the governing word. 

The following sentences convey very different ideas ; exam- 

P ^^ ' Transitive. Intransitive. 

434. He walked the horse round; and, He walked round the horse. 
He leaned the fence over, " He leaned over the fence. 
He rolled the carriage off, *•' He rolled off the carriage. 

435. Compound Active.— Sometimes when the active verb 
and the preposition occur together, they are parsed as one 
compound active verb : as, Providence smiles on us ; We will 
cast up accounts ; We run over lessons. 

436 P4SSIVE.--A passive verb is formed by prefixing a verb of being 
to the passive participle: as, I am disturbed; You have become disturbed; 
You seem disturbed. 

437. Compound Passive.— A passive verb is compound when 

the object of a preposition is used as the subject of the pas- 
sive verb ; exam ples : ^ — 

* * Live may govern a noun of kin dred signification: as, Live a life. 

431 Mention some verbs of being. 432. Give an example in which become is first 
intransitive, and secondly, transitive .-One in which lives is first intransitive, and sec 
ondly, transitive. 433. Can atransitive verb and a preposition both have the same re- 
giment-When the verb is transitive, what does the prepositional form become'?- Ex- 
|^ples?_Bnt when the verb is intransitive, what governs the object-To avoid ambi- 
auity, Avhat is generally best in such casesi 

"^ rLESSON 59.] 434. Examples in which the verb first governs, and secondly, the pre. 
position. 435. V^hen the verb and preposition are parsed together, what is the^nion 
called^-Examples. 436. How is a passive verb formedl-Examples. 437. When u 
a passive verb compoundl— Examples. 



I 



noin 



ETYMOLOGY. 223 

'^cti'^^' Compound Passive. 

They spoke of him. = He was spoken of 
They laughed at him.--= He was laughed at. 
We lost sight of it, r-^ Ii was lost sight of. 
The last example is a remarkable idiom. Si^ht would be the literal 
)roinative; thus, ^ Sight was lost of it:' but in the foregoing figurative 
expi-ession; the pronoun it is made the nominative, and sight, the objective 
absolute- But all the wovds.was lost sight of,m^j be parsed together as one 
compound passive verb, 

438. Regular and IKSEGULAK.-When the preterit tense 
and the perfect participle both end ia ed, the verb is called rea- 
ular; but otherwise, it is irregular. 

439. The simple Irregular Verbs are derived from the Saxon language, 
being about one hundred and seventy in number. 

The following list arranged alphabetically exhibits the irregular verbs 
as they are now generally used. 

440. Where the regular form is preferable, it is inserted first- 
letter r" "'''''''' ^""^ ^ '''^"''"" ''°"" '""" ''""'"""^'^ ^'^ "i^ked with the 

EXERCISE 64. 

^''''^'' Present, am; Preterit, ^^as; Perfect Participle, &em. 

IHKEGULAR VEKBS. 

^7'^'- ^ P^'^'^^'^- Perf. or Pass. Part. 

^^ was been 

^^^^^ abode abode 

^^■'^® a^ose arisen 

^^^^^^ awoke, R awaked 

Bear (to bring forth). . .bore or bare. born 

Bear (to carry) bore or bare borne 

^^^\ ^«at beaten, beat 

^'^''^ began begun 

-^end bent, R bent r 

^"'"^^^ bereft, R .bereft,R 

^®®^®^^ besought besought 

^^ • -bade, bid bidden, bid 

■^^"^ bound bound 



^-fthp^""^"'' J' '^''' verb called regular?--When irregular? 439. From what language 
^vh tVt^: l' "r derived? How many are there. 440. In the following lis', 
vhat IS the order of arrangement? <>.^| Exercise 64. 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Present, Preterit. Perf. or Pass. Part. 

Bite bit bitten, bit 

Bleed bled bled 

Blow blew blown 

Break broke broken 

Breed bred bred 

Bring brought brought 

Build built, r built, r 

Burn burnt, r burnt, r 

Burst burst burst 

Buy bought bought 

Cast cast cast 

Catch caught, r caught, r 

Chide chid chidden, ehid 

Choose chose chosen 

Cleave (to adhere) cleaved, clove cleaved 

Cleave (to split) clove, cleft cloven, cleft 

Cling clung clung 

Clothe clothed, clad clothed, clad 

Come came come 

Cost cost cost 

Crow crowed, crew crowed 

Creep crept, r c]-ept, r. 

Cut cut cut 

Dare (to venture) ..... .durst, r dared 

Dare (to challenge) . . . .dared dared 

Deal dealt, r dealt, r 

Dig dug, R dug, R 

Do did done 

Draw drew drawn 

Dream dreamt, r dreamt, r 

Drive drove driven 

Drink drank .drunk, drank* 

Dwell dwelt, r dwelt, r 

Eat ate, eat eaten 

Fall fell .fallen 

Feed fed fed 



* Drunk is properly the perfect participle from drink; but we have the best authority 
for usin» drank also in the perfect; and against this custom it would be in vain for us 
to remonstrate. Drunk, like the adjective of the same orthography, signifying intoxi- 
cated, is apt to excite in the mind a disagreeable idea; and it is probable that it will 
eventually share the fate of the obsolete participles, wreathen, holpeuj holden, molterit 
drunken, slank, gat, etc. 



ETYMOLOGY. 115 

Present. Preterit. Perf. or Pass. Part. 

Feel felt felt 

Fight fought fought 

Fiad found found 

Flee fled fled 

Fling .flung flung 

Fly flew. , flown 

Forsake forsook forsaken 

Freeze froze frozen 

Get got got, gotten 

Gild gilt, R gilt, R 

Gird girt, r girt, R 

Give gave given 

Go went gone 

Grave graved graven, r 

Grind ground ground 

Grow grew grown 

Hang hung,* r hung, r 

Have .had had 

Hear heard heard 

Heave heaved, hove heaved, hoven 

Hew .hewed hewed, hewn 

Hide hid hidden, hid 

Hit hit hit 

Hold held held 

Hurt hurt hurt 

Keep kept kept 

Kneel kneeled, knelt kneeled, knelt 

Knit knit, r. knit, r 

Know knew known 

Lay laid laid 

Lade laded laden, r 

Lean leaned, leant leaned, leant 

Lead led led 

Leave left. left 

Lend lent lent 

Let let let 

Lie (to recline) lay lain 

Light lighted, lit lighted, lit 

Lose lost lost 

Make made made 

* The regular hanged is used in reference to taking- away life by hanging : as, **They 
hanged Haman on the gallows that he had prepared for Mordecai." 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Presetit. Preterit. Perf. or Pass. Part. 

Mean meant meant 

Meet met met 

Mow mowed mowed, mown* 

Pay paid , paid 

Pen (to inclose).. . .penned, pent pent, r 

Put put put 

Quit quit, r quit, r 

Read read read 

Reave reft, r reft, r 

Rend rent rent 

Rid rid rid 

Ride rode rode, ridden 

Ring rung, rang rung 

Rise rose risen 

Rive rived riven, r 

Run ran run 

Saw sawed sawed, sawn 

Say said said 

See saw seen 

Seek sought sought 

Seethe seethed, sod seethed, sodden 

Sell sold sold 

Send sent sent 

Set.. set set 

Sit sat sat 

Shake shook shaken 

Shave sliaved shaved, shaven 

Shear .sheared sheared, shorn 

Shed shed shed 

Shine shone, r. . . , shone, r 

Shoe shod shod 

Show showed . shown, r 

Shoot shot shot 

Shut shut . .shut 

Shred shred shred 

Shrink shrunk shrunk 

Sing . .sung, sang sung 

Sink sunk, sank sunk 

Slay slew slain 

Sleep slept slept 

Slide slid slidden, slid 

Sling sluns: slunff 



ETYMOLOGY. 117 

Present. Preterit. Perf. or Pass. Part. 

Slink slunk slunk 

Slit slit, R , slit, R 

Smite smote smitten, smit 

Sow .sowed sowed, sown 

Speak spoke spoken 

Speed sped sped 

Spend spent spent 

Spell spelt, R. . . spelt, r 

Split split spl it 

Spill spilt, R spilt, R 

Spin spun spun 

Spit spit, spat spit 

Spread. spread spread 

Spring sprung, sprang sprung 

Stand stood stood 

Steal stole stolen 

Stick stuck stuck 

Sting stung stung 

Stride strode, strid stridden, strid 

Strike struck struck, stricken 

String strung, r strung, r 

Strive strove, r striven, r 

Strow strowed strewed, strown 

Swear swore sworn 

Sweat sweat, r sweat, r 

Sweep. swept swept 

Swell swelled swelled, swollen 

Swim swum, swam swum 

Swing swung swung 

Take took taken 

Teach taught taught 

Tear tore torn 

Tell told told 

Think thought thought 

Thrive thrived, throve thrived, thriven 

Throw threw, r thrown, r 

Thrust thrust thrust 

Tread trod trodden, trod 

Wake waked, woke waked 

Wear wore worn 

Weave wove, r woven, r 

Weep wept, r wept, r 



118 



ENGLISH GRA-MMAR. 



Present. Preterit. Pcrf. or Pass. Part, 

Wet wet, R wet, r 

Win , won won 

Whet whet, r whet, r 

Wind wound, r wound 

Wont won t, r wont, r 

Work worked, wrought worked, wrought 

Wring wrung, r wrung, r 

Write wrote written 

To regular verbs are sometimes given an improper termination : as, 
Learnt, spelt, checkt; for learned, spelled, checked. 

In the foregoing list many of the compound irregular verbs are omit- 
ted : such as befall, bespeak, mistake, overthrow, &c.; but these have the 
game variations as the simple verbs fall, speak, take, throw. 

lO" Obs. — Those verbs in the foregoing list, which have their preterit 
and perfect forms unlike, are apt to be misapplied. Such of them as 
demand more particular attention, are arranged in the following list for 
exercise. 

EXER CI s E 65. 



Present. 


Preterit. 


Per. Pass. Part. 


Present. 


Preterit. 


Per. Pass. Part 


Arise 


arose 


arisen 


Lay- 


laid 


laid 


Become 


became 


become 


Lie 


lay 


lain 


Begin 


began 


begun 


Raise 


raised 


raised 


Blow 


blew 


blown 


Rise 


rose 


risen 


Break 


broke 


broken 


Run 


ran 


run 


Choose 


chose 


chosen 


Set 


set 


set 


Come 


came 


come 


Sit 


sat 


sat 


Do 


did 


done 


See 


saw 


seen ^ 


Draw 


drew 


drawn 


Shake 


shook 


shaken 


Drive 


drove 


driven 


Slay 


slev7 


slain 


Eat 


ate, eat 


eaten 


Speak 


spoke 


spoken 


Fall 


fell 


fallen 


Steal 


stole 


stolen 


Flv 


flew 


flown 


Swear 


swore 


sworn 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


Take 


took 


taken 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Tear 


tore 


torn 


Give 


gave 


given 


Throw 


threw 


thrown 


Go 


went 


gone 


Wear 


wore 


worn 


Grow 


grew 


grown 


Weave 


wove 


woven 


Know 


knew 


known 


Write 


wrote 


written 



[Lesson 60.] Exercise 65. <K>. 



ETrMOLOGY. 119 

441. Rem. i. Lay means to place, and lie, to rest : as, Lay your book 
where mine lies. 

Rebi. ii. Raise means to lift, and rise, to ascend : as. When I raise my 
hand it rises. 

Rem. III. Set is to act, and sit, to rest : as, I set a chair for you to 
sit in. 

Rem. IV. The auxiliary is not prefixed to the preterit form ; thus, I 
have diJ, is improper. 

Rem. v. The perfect without an auxiliary can have no nominative : 
Thus, 1 done, is improper. 

Exercise 6 6 . — Improper Expressions. 

(Rem. I.) Lie your map upon the table. We should not lay late in 
the morning. He laid in bed till sunrise. The papers were lain before 
us by the teacher. 

(Rem. II.) Rise that beam. He raised from his couch. The sun had 
raised when we arose. 

(Rem. III.) She sets in her chair. Sit a chair for her. She set with via 
yesterday. 

(Rem. IV.) The moon has arose. The night has became bright. I have 
began life's journey. I had broke my old slate and chooe* a new one. 
You had came in due time and did me a favor. The nail was drew and 
drove in another place. The child has ate its supper and fell asleep. 
The bird hath flew away and forsook her young. The child being froze, 
it was gave up as dead : it has went to its long home. The boy has grew 
so much, I should not have knew him. Oar race is ran. We have saw 
the fortress shook and the officers slew. Thou hast spoke of the goods 
that were stole. The witness has been swore He might have took the 
paper, and tore it, and threw it into the fire. You might have wore the 
cloth after it was wove. Having wrote these sentences, I wish you ta 
correct them. 

(Rem. v.) You done right. You seen your brother. He begun the 
race and run it bravely. 

* When a conjunction connects words, the same prefixes are .understood to the last 
as to the first, unless differently expressed : as, Had broken and had chosen. 

441. Define lay and lie. — Examples. — Raise d^ndi rise. — Examples. — Set and sit? — 
Examples. — Is an auxiliary prefixed to the preterit form ? — Does the perfect without an 
auxiliary have a nominative 1 — Example. 

[Lesson 61.] Exercise 66. 0^>' 

11 



32Q ENGLISH GRAMMAH. 

Defective Verbs and Auxiliaries. 

442. A verb, wanting in some of its parts, is called defec- 
tive ; examjoles : 

T resent. Preterit, 

Will would, 

Shall should, 

May might, 

Can could, 

Must must, 

Ought ought, 

Dare durst. 

Need need, 

r Qaoth quoth, 

Not Auxiliaries <j Beware 

IWit __ 

Remarks on Defective Verbs. 

443. Ought signifies duty, and is always followed by a verb in the infini- 
tive form: as. Pupils ought to obey their teacher = Pupils should obey 
their teacher. Ought is never parsed alone; but always in connection with 
the principal verb expressed or understood. It is always prefixed to the pre- 
sent or perfect form of the infinitive: as, This ye ought to do. That ye 
ought to have done. 

Ought is in reality as much a defective auxiliary as must. It is used in 
precisely the same tenses, and the same remarks that have been made in 
relation to must, may equally apply to ought. (257.) Examples: 

F[JTURE. You ought to go next June. 

Future-Perfect. By next June you ought to have gone to school 
three years. 

Imperfect. I told you last June you ought to go. 

Pluperfect. You ought to have gone last June. 

444. Dare and need are sometimes principal verbs and sometimes aux- 
iliaries. As principal verbs, they are used regularly in all the tenses: as, 
He will not dare to attack his adversary: He needs advice. But as de- 
fective auxiliaries, they are used only in their present and past forms. 
They have no third personal termination, and the principal verb follow- 
ing them has not the sign to prefixed. 

442. What verbs are calle<l defective? — Examples. 443. What of ought? — Exam- 
ples. — Is ought parsed alone? — To what is it prefixe-d? — Examples.— Is ought in reality 
a defective auxiliary? — Examples. 444. What of dare and need? — How are they used 
as principal verbs? — Examples. — As defective anxiliaries, how are they characterized? 
Examples. 



ETYMOLOGY. 121 

Dr. Webster remarks of dare, that it has the form of an auxiliary — 
that in the German it is classed with the auxiliaries. The following quo- 
tations are some of his examples of dare and need, *'I dare engage." 
**I dare not confess." ** I dare say." " Durst I venture to deliver my 
own sentiment? " 

" Nobody need be afraid he shall not have scope enough." " The 
lender need be under no fear." " A man need not be uneasy on these 
grounds." " He need not urge the honorable court." 

445. Needs is sometimes used adverbially: as, "If which must needs 
(necessarily) be neuter, the world is wrong in this." — G. Brown. 

" 'T is hard; but when we needs must hear, 

Enduring patience makes the burden light." — Creech. 

446. Quoth, signifying say or said, is used in burlesque, and seems to 
be confined to the first and third person singular, and mostly to the pre- 
terit tense: as, 

" Good morrow fool, quoth I: no sir, quoth he, 
Call me not fool 'till heaven hath sent me fortune." — Shak. 

447. Beware is used in ail the moods and several of the tenses, but it 
has no participial form. 

"Beware 
Of entrance to a quarrel; but being in. 
Bear it that the opposer may beware of thee." — Shak. 

448. Wit, as a defective verb, is used only in the present infinitive, as 
an abstract phrase: as, There were two rival cities; to wit, Rome and 
Carthage. Wot, its preterit form, is now obsolete. 

449. Used, prefixed to the present form of the infinitive, seems to bo 
characterized as an auxiliary, in forming the preterit tense: as, She used 
to sing; i. e., she did sing formerly. 

" Of all the friends I used to love. 
My harp remains alone." 

450. Had, before a comparative, is equivalent to the defective auxili- 
ary would: as, 

" T had much ratlier be myself the slave 
And wear the bonds, than fasten them on him." — Cowper. 

Remarks on Analysis, 

451. 1st. In analyzing, we must endeavor first, to arrive at the mean- 
ing of the sentence. When terms have been inverted or changed from 

[Lesson 62.] 445. How is %eg& sometimes used? — Examples. 446. Whrit of QUOth? 
Example. 447. What of beware? — Example. 448. What of wit? — Example. — Of wot? 
449. What of w.s^fZ.^— Examples. 450. What of had?— Example . (^> 451. In ana. 
lyzing, what must we first endeavor to do? 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

their natural order, it is often necessary to transpose them (change them 
back) in order to arrive at the sense: Examples, 

*' On this mount he appeared, under this tree 
Stood visible, among these pines, his voice 
I heard; here with him at this fountain talked." 

T r a nsposition. 

He appeared on this mount, and stood visible under this tree; I heard 
his voice among these pines, and talked with him here at this fountain. 

452. 2d. The collocation of words in poetry commonly diifers widely 
from the ordinary arrangement in prose; thus, the verb frequently has 
the nominative after it, and the objective or predicate before it: as, 

*' Cold was the grasp, a withering scowl she wore. 
And hope's soft energies were felt no more." — Rogers. 

Here, ^rasp is nominative to was, and scowl the object of wore. 

"Bone of my bone thou art." 
"Me let the tender office long engage 
To rock the cradle of reposing age." — Pope. 

453. 3d. A preposition often has its object before it and its precedent 
after it: as, 

"Thee, chantress, oft the woods among 
I woo, to hear thy even song." — Milton. 

Transposed, thus: 

I often woo thee, chantress, among the woods, to hear thy even song. 

454. Order of Parsing, 

In the principal clause, parse 

First, the verb and its nominative case. 
Secondly, the objective case, or predicate nominative. 
Thirdly, the qualifying words, as adjectives and adverbs. 
Fourthly, the preposition and its object. 

Havhig parsed these elements, with the infinitives and participles, the 
pupil is conducted to the subordinate clause connected by some relative 
or conjunction; and thus, the composition is transposed with little effort. 
When a transposition is necessary, it is best to find the verb first, and 
then its nominative and object. 



Give an example of the inversion of terms. — Transpose this example. 452. In po- 
etry, how do the nominative and the objective or predicate often stand in relation to 
the verb? — Examples. 453. How the precedent and the objective in relation to the 
preposition? — Example. — Transpose this example. 454. Name the order of paTsing". 



ETYMOLOGY. 123 

455. Rem. To find the nominative to a verb, or the precedent to a pre- 
position, place the interrogative who or what before the verb or preposi- 
tion. To find the object of a verb or preposition, place whom or what af- 
ter it. 

EXER CI s E 67. 
Distinguish, in the following example, the nominative to is. 
" Born in a climate softer far than ours. 
Nor form'd, like us, with such Herculean powers, 
The Frenchman, easy, debonnair, and brisk, 
Give him his lass, his fiddle and his frisk. 
Is always happy, reign whoever may. 
And laughs the sense of misery far away." — Cowper. 

Distinguish the precedent to of, the first preposition. 

"Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 
Brought death into the world and all our woe 
With loss of Eden, 'till one greater man 
Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, 
Sing, heavenly muse!" — Milton. 
Distinguish the object of met. 

" I met, yesterday, to my great surprise, in Washington street, as 1 
was coming out of the church and going home, my mind wholly occu- 
pied with something else, my eldest child." 

Distinguish the verb that agrees vv^ith the nominative he. 

" He who reigns in the heavens, by whom all kingdoms are upheld, to 
whom alone belongs glory, majesty, and independence, is, likewise, the 
only being who can boast of ruling kings, and of giving them, when it 
pleases him, great and terrible lessons." 

456. Ellipsis. Words are often omitted through ellipsis, but in pars- 
ing the ellipsis must generally be supplied. 

" Faults in the life breed errors in the brain 
And these reciprocally (breed) those again." — Cowper. 
" He shares the frugal meal v/ith those (whom) he loves." — Grahame. 
" Though low (is) the subject it deserves our pains.^' " He thought as 1 did (think)." 
(He) " Who does the best his circumstance allows, 

Does well, acts nobly — angels could (do) no more." — Young. 

[Lesson 63.] 455. How do you find the nominative to a verb, or the precedent to a 
preposition? — How the object of a verb or preposition? Exercise 67. 456. In parsing, 
ehould the ellipsis be supplied? — Give examples involving ellipsis. C y0. 



124 ENGLISH GRAMx^lAR. 

Exercise 68. — Parsing, 
Idleness is the great foinenter of all corruptions in the human heart. 
The Congress of the United States is composed of a Senate and House of 
Representatives. General Bolivar is styled the Washington of South 
America. 

"He dies disputing, and the contest ends." 
"Are they friends ? Friends they cannot be !" 

"= x^Iy story being done, 

She gave me for my pains a world of sighs." 
Indians delight in hunting and fishing. 

'• Mark yon old mansion frowning through the trees, 
Whose hollow turret wooes the whistling breeze." 
The widow is left executrix of the estate. 
" Yarrow, as he roU'd along, 
Bore burden to the minstrel's song." 
" Homer has been styled the prince of poets." 
" he that depends 

Upon your favors, swims with fins of lead. 
And hews down oaks with rushes." 
*• Seize on him, furies — take him to your torments." 
"Arise! ye Goths, and glut your irel" 
" Awake, arise, with grateful fervor fraught; 
Go spring the mine of elevated thought." 

This thesis is mine. Those theses are theirs — one is his, the other is 
hers. "Vocal and instrumental music were made use of." The General 
wounded himself. He went himself into the hospital. "Whosoever 
shall receive one of such children in my name, receive th me." " What- 
ever purifies the heart, fortifies it." Take whatever one pleases you best. 
"What they like at noon they leave at night ; 
They gain with labor what they quit with ease." 
"Whatsoever ye shall bind on earth, shall be bound in heaven; and 
whatsoever ye shall loose on earth, shall be loosed in heaven.' ' 
"'On what foundation stands the warrior's pride ?" 

" I speak not to disprove what Brutus spoke, 
But here I am to speak what I do know." 
These phenomena were spoken of by the ancients. We cast up our 
Exercise 68. 



ETYMOLOGY. 125 

accounts. We ought to examine ourselves. This ought ye to have done. 
He need travel no farther : the enemy dare not oppose him. 
" I struck my choice upon her ere my heart 
Durst make too loud a herald of my tongue.'* 

THE ADJECTIVES. 

457. An Adjective is a word used to point out or describe 
a Substantive. 

458. The term Adjective is derived from the Latin Adjectus, signifying 
added to — Ad, to, and jacio, to put, to lay. 

469. Limiting and Desaihing are the two general divisions 
of adjectives; but to these are sometimes added other terms: 
as, Proper, participial, and compound adjectives. 

Propee adjectives are those formed from proper names: as, 
American, Grecian, Roman. 

460. Participial adjectives are such as are derived from 
verbs, and have the form but not the functions of participles : 
as, A loriting master : A written composition. 

461. Compound adjectives are two adjectives used as one; 
the former modifying the latter: as, The late-washed grass: 
A low-crowned hat : Pale-hlue linen : Red hot iron : A deep sea- 
green sash : A hundred men : Many a camp. 

A participial adjective has the form, but not the functions of a parti- 
ciple : thus, When I say, I saw a running horse in the stall, I mean, a 
race- horse, and not, a horse running in the stall. 
The following sentences convey different ideas : 

Participial Adjectives. Participles. 

I saw a carding machine I saw a machine carding. 

I saw a laboring man I saw a man laboring. 

A participial adjective describes an object, but it does not refer to a 
subject, like a participle : thus, in the last example, inquire, Who was 
laboring ? The answer is, man; then man is the producer of the par- 
ticiple laboring. But, in the other example, inquire, Who was laboring 
the man ?— -you find there can be no answer; and hence laboring must 
be an adjective, merely describing man 

[ Lesson 64.] 457. What is an adjective 1 458. From what is the term adjective 
derived ? 459. What are the two general divisions of adjectives ? — What other terms 
are sometimes added ? 460. What are participial adjectives ? — Examples. 461. What 
are compound adjectives 1 — Examples. 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

462. Words, commonly employed as nouns, are frequently used as ad- 
jectives : as, A silver watch. A gold chain. An iron chest. A morning 
cloud. An evening visit. A south-sea dream. 

An adjective usually follows the pronoun which it describes : as, We 
are all sinful, depraved, dependent. 

• 463. An adjective sometimes follows the noun : as, Henry the eighth. 
Lewis the bold. A woman modest, discreet, confiding. 

464. Adjectives usually follow those verbs that signify to be or to be- 
come : as, The grass looks (is) green. The sun shines (is) hot. The 
moon grows (becomes) pale. Peaches boil (become) soft. 

465. Adjectives — Co 7np ar ed. 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Far. farther .farthest or farthermost. 

■XT (nearest (referring to place). 

Near nearer ■{ ^ si'/ 

fnext (in order). 

Fore former -. . fo'-e™''^* (i» ?"«««)• 

(first (in time or order). 

Hind hinder. hindmost or hindermost. 

In inner inmost or innermost. 

^ , (outer outmost or outermost. 

(utter uttermost or utmost. 

Up upper uppermost or upmost. 

Low lower lowest or lowermost. 

J . Vlater latest (referring to time). 

(latter last (in order). 

nether nethermost. 

under undermost. 

Top topmost. 

Down downmost. 

466. The comparatives former, hinder, inner, outer, latter, upper, latter, nether, and 
under, as well as the Latin comparatives superior, inferior, anterior, posterior, interior, 
exterior, prior, ulterior, senior, junior, major, and minor, are not followed by than to 
introduce a latter term of comparison. 

467. Rems. Perfect, supreme, chief, Almighty, everlasting, round, square, 
perpendicular, horizontal, &c., express the highest degree, and may not 
literally admit of comparison; for when an object is perfect, supreme, 
round, or square, nothing else can be more so. A thing may be perfect, 
or it may be nearer perfect than another thing, but it cannot be more than 
perfect. But as we regard the euphony of the language, and the practice 

462. Are nouns ever used as adjectives ? — Examples. 463. Does an adjective ever 
follow a noun ? — Examples. 464. What verbs do adjectives usually follow ? — Exam- 
ples. <(KV ^^^- Coi^pare the adjectives in the list. 466. Mention some compara- 
tives that are not followed by than. 467. When an adjective is in the highest degree, 
does it literally admit of comparison ?— Examples. — Do we admit the figurative usage 



ETYMOLOGY. 127 

of the best speakers and writers, we must admit the figurative usage more 
perfect and most perfect: as, "Sight is the most perfect of all our senses." — 
[Spectator.] The author does not mean by this expression, that the other 
senses are perfect, (for he says feeling is very much confined in its ope- 
rations,) but he means simply, that sight is the nearest perfect of all our 
senses. 

The expressions rounder and roundest, produce an easier flow than 
nearer round and nearest round; and hence such expressions are fre- 
quently used. 

Exercise 69. — Parsing. 
'' Base envy withers at another's joy." 

" we may lighten 

Each other's burden in our share of woe." 
'* Eloquent words a graceful manner want." 
*' Come, pensive nun, devout and pure, 

Sober, steadfast, and demure." 
"Universal sweetness purer joys inspires." 
" The rich grow poor, the poor become purse-proud." 
" They left me weary on a grassy turf." 
"The work divided aptly, shorter grows." 
"Ah! how unjust to nature and himself 

Is thoughtless, thankless, inconsistent man." 
" 'Tis heaven's commanding trumpet, long and loud." 
" This placcj the brightest mansion of the sky, 
I'll call the palace of the Deity." 
Having rode forty miles, he came home last evening; ate an hour, and 
slept all night. 

" The Roman ladies wore golden ear-rings, pearl necklaces and brace- 
lets, and rings of precious stones on their fingers." 

" What is becoming is honorable, and what is honorable is becoming." 
" Religion refines our moral sentiments, disengages the heart from 
every vain desire, renders it tranquil under misfortune, humble in the 
presence of God, and steady in the society of men." 
"The last shall be first, and the first, last." 

" Full many a flower is born to blush unseen. 
And waste its sweetness on the desert air." 

wore perfect and iJiost perfect? — Example. — What does the author mean by the expres- 
sion, " Sight is the most perfect of all our senses 1" Why are rounder and roundest 
sometimes used 1 
I Lesson 65.] Exercise 69. 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

THE ADVERBS. 

468. All Adverb is a word used to modify a Verb, an Adjec- 
tive, or another Adverb. 

469. Adverb is derived from the Latin adverbinn, signifying, to a 
verb: — Ad, to, and verbum, v^ord. The adverb is most commonly added 
to the verb, but it frequently modifies other parts of speech. 

470. Several adverbs may be used to modify one verb : as, Perhaps 
you now understand me well. 

471. Adverbs of manner commonly end in ly, which suffix, is a con- 
traction of like : as, He acted manly; i. e., m&nlike, or like a man. 

472. An adverb stands for an equivalent adjunct of several words; so 
that by the use of the adverb, discourse is greatly shortened: as. He 
acted nobly: i. e., in a noble manner. He lives here^zrzHe lives at this place. 

473. A perfect classification of the adverbs, is impracticable. The 
principal classes are those of manner, order, time, place, degree, affirma- 
tion, negation, and doubt. 

Manner Wisely, justly, well, ill or badly, aground, ashore, apart.* 

Order First, secondly, thirdly. 

Time Soon, often, frequently, now, to-day, yesterday, then, here- 
after, to-morrow, yet, since, henceforth, frequently, ago. 

Place Yonder, here, there, where, wherein, f about, above, before, 

upward, downward, somewhere, anywhere, everywhere, 
elsewhere. 

Degree Very, much, little, nearly, almost, only or but, merely, en- 
tirely, too, sufficiently, far, enough, as, so, however, ex- 
ceedingly, extremely, infinitely. 

Affirm ATI ON. Yes, yea, indeed, surely, truly, doubtless, certainly, verily, 
amen. 

Negation.. . .No, nay, not, nowhere, never, nowise. 

Doubt Perhaps, perchance, may-be, possibly. 

* Some adverbs are formed by prefixing a in the sense of the prepositions, at, on, etc.; 
as, Abed) ashore, aground. 

t Adverbs of place, with prepositions permanently affixed, form a numerous class of 
adverbs: as, Hereby, thereby, whereby; herein,, therein, wherein. Those of time and 
place sometimes have ever or soever annexed; as. Whenever, wherever, wheresoever, 
or whithersoever. 

[Lesson 66.} 468. What is an adverb? 469. From what is the term adverb de- 
rived? 470. Give an example in which several adverbs modify one verb. 471. The 
termination ly is a contraction of wha.t word? — Examples. 472. An adverb stands for 
what? — Examples. 473. What are the principal classes of adverbs? — Mention some 
of manner. — Some of order. — Some of time. — Some of place. — Some of degree. — Some 
of affirmation. — Some of negation. — Some of doubt. CK> 



ETYMOLOGY. 129 

474. Some of the foregoing adverbs are varied to express 
degrees of comparison. 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Well,.. better, best, 

111 or badly, worse, worst. 

Soon,. ... sooner, soonest. 

Often, oftener, oftenest. 

Far, farther, farthest. 

Forth, further, furthest. 

Much, more, most. 

Little, less, least. 

475. Many of the words, in the list of adverbs, are fre- 
quently employed as other parts of speech, as the following 
couplets will show : 

EXERCISE 70. 

ad. ad. 

Here's the very man, the only man, 

adv. adv. 

That only smiles when very sad. 

n. ad. 

He goes to the well when well, 
adv. 

And drinks as well as others. 

pi'ep. 
She speaks of none but him, 
con. adv. 

But she but* speaks to censure. 

n. adv. 

To-morrow is yet to come, 

con. adv. 

Yet we may live to-morrow. 

ad. adv. 

Much wisdom makes one laugh but little; 

ad. adv. 

Little wisdom makes one laugh too much. 

ad. adv. 

The far west must far advance, 

con. prep. 

Before she '11 rank before us. 

* But, in the sense of only, is an adverb; and in the sense of except, it is a prepo- 
sition. 

474. As I name the positive degree, compare the adverbs in the list. 475. Are ad- 
verbs ever used as other parts of speech 7 — Exercise 70. 



130 ENGLISH GRAMxMAR. 

476. In poetry, it is admissible, and frequently very elegant, to use tiie 
adverb in the adjective form: as, '* Gradual sinks the breeze." 

<•' To thee ray thoughts 
Continnal climb." — Thomson. 

477. Some adverbs of the adjective form are occasionally admitted in 
prose: as. Open your hand wide; raise it up high. "She dresses plain y 
but neat.^^ 

478. Adverbs are sometimes used in an independent manner, without 
modifying any particular word; examples: 

Yes, with all my heart I love thee. 

No, 1 never mention him. 

Now, Bethlehem was two days' journey from the place 

Again: The war is unjust and should therefore be discontinued. 

There were two officers here yesterday. 

In this independent manner, there is often used as an expletive word, 
simply to introduce a subject, without any regard to place. 

479. Yes, no, so, and amen, are sometimes equivalent to a whole sen- 
tence, and might with propriety, perhaps, be called sentential adverbs; 
Examples: Is this understood? Yes; i. e., it is understood. 

Should it ever be forgotten? No. = It should never be forgotten 
He is a good scholar, and I have always told you so. 
"And all the people shall say, amen." z=. So let it be. 

480. Position. The placing of the adverb is regulated more by the 
sense to be conveyed than by any general rule. 

4'?!. The adverb comes before the adjective and adverb which it modi- 
fies: 'd9, A very good pen writes extremely well. 

It usually follows the principal verb or first auxiliary: as, It writes 
well Vviien it is luell made. 

It often coii:ies before the vei-l): es. John n.--/// ?avv jaine? without hail- 
ing him. 

Here only modifies saw; but in the sentence, ' Only John saw James,- 
the adverb only seems to modify John. 

482. Some adverbs of degree are occasionally used to modify 



[Lesson 67.] 476. In poetry is the adverb ever used in the adjective fonn? — Examples. 
477. Is it ever so used in prose?— Examples. 478. Is the adverb ever used independently"? 
— Examples. 479. What of 7/es, no, so, and amen? — Examples. 450. Is *here any 
fixed rule for the placing of the adverb? 481. How is it placed in relation to the ad. 
jective and the adverb which it modifies?— Examples. — Does it ever come before the 
verb?— Example. 4 K|. 482. Do adverbs ever modify substautives and preposi- 
tions? — Examples. 



ETYMOLOGY. 131 

substantives and prepositions ;'^ as, " They only are wise wlio 
are wise to salvation." He studies grammar chiefly, ^ He is 
nearly through it. He is elevated almost beyond measure. "I 
should have succeeded but for your interference." "I know very 
little as to his property." 

*' Man but for this, no action could attend, 
And but for that were active to no end." 

483. An adverbial phrase is an adjunct of several words 
used as an adverb : as, In general^ for generally. In vain, for 
vainly. 

The following list presents some of the 

484. Adverbial Phrases, 

At most, at length, of course, a little, the more, the most, in short, in 
vain, in order, long ago, some time ago or some time since, forevermore, 
by-and-bye, on high, to-and-fro, not at all, by no means, hand in hand, 
side by side. 

Rem. In the sentence, " Every man helps a little,''^ a little is an adverbial 
phrase, modifying helps. *' The more I examine it the better I like it.^' 
Here, The more modifies examine and the better modifies like. "A trifle 
stronger. ^^ Here, according to Webster, a trifle is an adverb modifying 
stronger. And so in the sentence, 'The wail is a foot high,' a foot is an 
adverbial phrase modifying liigh^ for it tells how high. The same may be 
said of three inches thick, ten miles square, etc. In the phrase, "A great 
many men," A great modifies the adjective many, for it only means very 
many. 

*"John saw him only. Hera the adverb only does not modify the verb saw but the 
pronoun him." — Butler. 

" Adverbs sometimes qualify prepositions: as, To see the virtues of a hero tried al- 
most beyond the stretch of human pov^^er. He arrived just before noon. He was 
scourged nearly to death." — Putnam. 

" Adverbs sometimes affect prepositions: as. Captain Wilkes sailed nearly round 
the world. ' Far above the diurnal sphere.' Nearly over the river." — Chandler. 

Mr. V^'ells says an adverb is sometimes used to modify a preposition, and that there 
are certain forms of expression in which adverbs have a special relation to nouns and 
pronouns: as, "He was wounded just below the ear." "Behold, I, even I, do bring a 
flood of waters." "For our gospel came not unto you in word only, but also in power." 

f'The adverbs used to qualify nouns, are chiefly those which may refer to the exclu- 
sion or addition of objects, such as chiefly, particularly, especially, entirely, altogether, 
solely, only, merely, partly, also, likewise." — Butler. 

483. V^Tiat is an adverbial phrase? — Examples. 484. Give the list of adverbial 
phrases. — Ji trifle stronger; what is a trifle? — Jl foot high; what is a foot? 



1:12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise 71. — Parsing. 
Co aid u mere man have raised the dead ? ^i'^^No.* 
Who has read w'^^entirely through that book ? My brother w'^^'only. We 
travelled n'^'^all over the country, and we have r^^at last settled here. 

" Some choose the clearest light, 
And boldly challenge the most piercing eye." 

''When a man talks of love, with caution, trust him; but if he swears, 
he'll certainly deceive thee." 

" O mortal man who livest here by toil, 
Do not complain of this thy hard estate." 

*' When ladies sing, or in thy presence play, 
Do not, dear John, in rapture melt away." 

"Our hight is but the gibbet of our name." 

''Our hearts ne'er bow but to superior worth." 

" In vain our flocks and fields increase our store. 
When our abundance makes us wish for more." 

" The mighty chiefs sleep side by side." 

Yes, you despise the man to books confin'd, 
Who from his study rails at human kind; 
Though what he learns he speaks, and may advance 
Some gen'ral maxims, or be right by chance. 

There is a wall in China ^^[fifteen hundred miles long and twenty ^^^feet 
in height. 

THE PREPOSITIONS. 

485. A Preposition is used to connect words and sbow the 
relation between them. 

486. Preposition is derived from the Latin prcBpositus — signifying 
placed before ; Pre, before, and pono, to place. 

The Preposition is placed before the object which it governs. 

* The figure with n or r refers to the No. of the note or rule by which the word is 
parsed. See Syntax, part III. 

[ Lesson 68.] Exercise 71. 

[ Lesson 69.] 485. What is a preposition? 486. From what is the term preposi- 
tion derived 7 



ETYMOLOGY. 



lo J 



LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 



About, 


Below, 




From, 


Through, 


Above, 


Beneath, 




In, 


Throughout. 


According to, 


Beside, ) 
Besides.^ 




Into, 


Till, 


Across, 




Instead of, 


To, 


After, 


Between,) 
Betwixt, \ 




Like,* 


Toward, ) 


Against, 




Near, 


Towards, ) 


Along, 


Beyond, 




Nigh, 


Under, 


Amid, i 
Amidst,^ 


By, 




Notwithstanding; 


, Underneath, 


Concerning,^ 


) 


Of, 


Until, 


Among, ) 
Amongst,^ 


Respecting, . 


> 


Off, 


Unto, 


Regarding, 


) 


On, 


Up, 


Around, 


Down, 




Out of, 


Upon, 


At, 


During, 




Over, 


With, 


Athwart, 


Except, ) 
Excepting,^ 


but, 


Past, 


Within, 


Before, 


save 


, Round, 


Without, 


Behind, 


For, 

^concerning " 
respecting p, 
regarding 




Since, 


Worth. 


Paul spoke 


rist and the Church. 






^ touching 









These words in ing are sometimes used as participles : as, I found him concerning 
jiimself very much, touching the body with his hand, — respecting and regarding it 
greatly. The preposition touching is nearly obsolete. During s.nd notwithstanding are 
not used as participles, for the radical verb dure is obsolete; and notwithstanding is 
never used as a radical verb. J^fotwitkstanding is a coalition of the adverb woi and the 
participle withstanding. 

487. According to, instead of, and out of, are properly prepositions, 
though composed of two Vv'Ords, These are sometimes termed preposi- 
tional phrases. 

488. Rem. When two prepositions occur together, they may show the 
Fame relation and be parsed as one : as. She came /rom M?]c/er the tree, 
over against the wall. Here, some would supply, in parsing, an ellipsis 
of one object: as, She came from her position under the tree, over the 
road against the wall. 



Remarks on Like, Near, and Nigh. 

* Goold Brown remarks, that as similarity and proximity are relations, and not 
qualities, it might seem proper to call like, near, and nigh, prepositions. But for cer- 
tain reasons, he has not classed them with the prepositions. They are used as prepo- 



Name the prepositions in the list, i %'^. 487. Which are sometimes termed pre- 
positional phrases ? 488. How may two prepositions, occurring together, be parsed ? — 
Example. 



]:U ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4S9. The Preposition sometimes has a sentence or phrase for 
its object: as, You will oblige me by sending those hooks. — Smith. 

Now ask the question, You will oblige me by what ? Sending those 
hooks is the answer to the question; and, doubtless, this entire phrase is 
the logical object Ox^ the preposition bij: but we do not say the phrase is 
in the ohjective case. It cannot be parsed by rule 19th, for it is not a sub- 
stantive. If a word governs a phrase, it governs it as an individual thing, 
without affecting any one word in the phrase. Sending is a transitive 
participle governing the objective books, but it is not itself governed in the 
objective case by the preposition by. Mr. Smith, in parsing this sentence, 
says : the preposition 6?/ governs the participial noun sending, in the ob- 
jective case, and that sending is an active participle governing the noun 
books. So, according to this author, sending both governs the objective 
case, and is itself governed in the objective case I 

Goold Brown thinks it incorrect to make the imperfect participle the 
object of a verb while it retains the government of a participle. It is no 
less incorrect to make it the object of a preposition while it retains the 
g-ev^rnment of a participle. If it is a transitive participle, it should be 
parsed as such; for it cannot have all the functions of a participle and of 
a noun at the same time. 

" In the year 476, ended the vvestern empire of Rome, after having stood 



sitions, ho\vever, by some other distinguished grammarians. In the phrase, " So near 
thy heart," Dr, Johnson calls near a preposition ; — the adverb so modifying the prepo- 
sition near. Mr. Brown thinks that near is not a preposition, because it has an adverb 
relating to it; but if he denies all vi^ords a place among the prepositions that have ad- 
verbs relating to them, the list of prepositions must be greatly reduced. We say, 'Just 
before sunrise :' ' Long after sunset :' ' Far beyond our reach'^making before, after, 
and beyond, prepositions, although they are modified by adverbs. Again : he thinks 
that near, nigh, and like, are not prepositions, because the preposition to or unto is 
sometimes expressed after them ; — but the expressions, like to and like unto, are anti- 
quated; and some philologists reject them altogether. 

He looks LIKE UNTO his father, and he speaks like unto him. When we meet with 
this obsolete construction in parsing, we may properly call the first like, expressing 
similarity of being, an adjective ; and the second like, expressing similarity of action, 
an adverb ; for here the preposition unto is expressed to govern the object ; — but when 
the preposition to or U7ito does not come after like, near, or nigh, these words may be 
parsed as prepositions. 

It is admitted by all. that like, near, and nigh, as well as worth, require the objective 
case after them, and will not admit the nominative. Mr. Putnam says that like and 
worth show relation betv/een words, and also govern the objective case. These are 
precisely the functions of prepositions; and hence they may, without any impropriety, 
be called prepositions. 

" The period will, doubtless, arrive when hut, worth, and like, will be considered pre- 
positions." — Kirkham. This prophesy has been fulfilled since Kirkham wrote his 
grammar. 

In' his list of prepositions, Hazen has hut. Wells has worth, and Spencer has like. 

489. Does a preposition ever have a sentence or phrase for its logical object ? — Ex- 
ample, Is the phrase properly in the objective case ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 135 

1229 years ! after shows the relation between the two great events, 

or phrases, without governing any one word, but the whole phrase fol- 
lowing. ' ' — Spencer. 

EXERCISE 72 . — Parsing. 
He is content, notwithstanding his poverty. 

"True happiness is to no place confined. 
But still is found in a contented mind." 
Instead of peace, we have wars and contentions. We have security 
in nothing except industry and virtue. 

"Vice oft is hid in virtue's fair disguise. 
And in her borrow'd form escapes inquiring eyes." 
" She is worth him and all his relations." 

"The boy stood on the burning deck 
Whence all but him had fled; 
The flames that lit the battle wreck 
Shone round him o'er the dead." 
" Israel burned none of them save Hazor only." 
"He, like the world, his ready vigil pays 
Where fortune smiles." 
She sat near me during the whole transaction. 

"Errors, like straws, upon the surface flow — 
He who would search for pearls must dive below." 
She came from under the tree. " Lightnings descend from on high." 
"A waspish tribe are these, on gilded wings 
Humming their lays, and brandishing their stings. 
And thus they move their friends and foes among, 
Prepar'd for soothing or satiric song." 
Criminals are punished for n^^ violating the laws. A generous reward was 
granted him for committing the deed. 

THE CONJUNCTIONS. 

490. A Conjunction is used to connect words or sentences. 

491. Conjunction is derived from the Latin, conjungo, which signifies 
to join together — con, together, and jungo, to join. 

[Lesson 70.] 

[Lesson 71.] 490. Define a conjunction. 491, From what is the term conjunction 
derived? -. i^ 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

492. List of C onjunctions . 

Copulative . . .And, than, as, as well as, for or because, that, since, there- 
fore, wherefore. 

Disjunctive . .Or or nor, but, though or although, yet, nevertheless, 
whereas, notwithstanding. 

Conditional . . If, unless, provided, lest, except. 

493. Substantives connected by and, or or nor, than and as, may refer 
to the same individual or to different individuals, thus: 

/-He is a statesman and representative. 
Th S J He is a statesman or (rather) a representative. 
I He is a better farmer than statesman. 
^ He is not so good a farmer as statesman. 

r I met a farmer and a statesman. 
Diff re t \ ^ "^^^ ^ farmer or (else) a statesman. 

I I met the farmer oftener than the statesman. 

I 

^I met the farmer as often as the statesman. 

He is elected as a representative.^ 

In this last example, he and representative may refer to the same indi- 
vidual; and the expression may mean, "He is elected to be a representa- 
tive;" or, these words may refer to different individuals, and the expres- 
sion may mean, * He is elected as a representative is elected.' 

Rem. As well as usually has the force of and, but the terras connected 
have a different syntactical dependence: as. They are here as well as she 
(is.) 

Th an a nd A ^ . 

494. Than and as usually connect terms contrasted in the same case. 

/ linow a farmer more eloquent than that statesman. 

In this elliptical sentence, the relative icho is understood to be the first 
term of comparison, statesman being connected with it in the nominative 
case: as, I know a farmer who is more eloquent than that statesman. 

495. Than, it is supposed, was formerly used as a preposition, and 
hence it is sometimes used to govern the relative whom: as, 

''Beelzebub — than whom 
Satan except, none higher sat," — Milton. 

492 Mention some copulative conjunctions. — Some disjunctive. — Some conditional. 
493. Give examples in which and, or, than, and as, connect substantives referring to 
the same individual. — To different individuals. 494. Wliat do than and as usually 
connect? i/aV 495. What objective word may i/iCJi govern? — Example. 



ETYMOLOGY. 137 

This seems to be an anomalous expression, but the poets have com- 
mended the construction to good use. 

496. It is unnecessary to class than with the prepositions, for it gov- 
erns in no other construction, and whom is the only word that it ever 
governs in the language. It may be termed in this instance, a governing 
conjunction. See Syntax, note 63. 

PRONOMINAL CONJUNCTIONS. 

497. Than and as are called pronominal conjunctions when 
they assume the attributes of pronouns : as, we admit no more 
pupils than can be accommodated. We admit as many as can 
be accommodated. 

The idea is, that we admit no more than the number that can be ac- 
commodated — We admit as many as the number that can be accommo- 
dated. But it is unnecessary to supply the ellipsis of the latter term of 
comparison and the relative pronoun. (Number that.) It is preferable 
to parse the conjunction like a relative pronoun relating to pupils, third 
person plural, and nominative to can be accommodated. 

*^* Than and as are called pronominal conjunctions when they have the attributes 
of pronouns, just as adjectives are called pronominal adjectives when they have the 
attributes of pronouns. The adjective is called a pronominal adjective when it as- 
sumes the functions of the elliptical noun, and the conjunction is called a pronominal 
conjunction when it assumes the functions of the elliptical pronoun. 

498. Rem. As is most commonly a pronominal conjunction after swc^, 
many, or same; as, We admit such as are competent: " He exhibited the 
same books as were given to him." 

499. As follows, as appears, etc., are equivalent to * As it follows,' as it 
appears.' In these examples, the pronominal conjunction as relates to no 
definite thing. It is as indefinite in its application as the pronoun it, in 
the expressions, It rains, it snows, it thunders. 

That. 

500. The conjunction that, like the relative pronoun, is used to con- 
nect clauses: as, " The miser has lived poor that he may die rich." 

501. That is used as an adjective, a relative pronoun, and a conjunc- 
tion: as, '* Read that book that I gave you that you may become wise. " 

496. Why is not than classed with the prepositions? 407. When are than and as 
called pronominal conjunctions? — Examples. 498. After what words is as most com- 
monly a pronominal conjunction? — Examples. 499. In the expression, As follows, as 
appears, etc., is as definite or indefinite in its application? 

[Lesson 72.] 500. What is the conjunction iAai used to connect? — Example. 501, 
As what parts of speech may that be used? — Example. 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

502. One distinguishable difference between the relative and the con- 
junction is, that the relative relates to an antecedent, but the conjunction 
does not. The conjunction thati however, is like the relative in this re- 
spect; that when it is repeated, it does not supersede the necessity of an- 
other conjunction: as, *' I know that the eye of the public is upon me, 
and that I shall be held responsible for every act." 

503. And, here, connects in the mind the first member, / know, with 
the elliptical member, / know, understood. The second that connects 
the clause that follows it, with the elliptical member. The meaning is, 
I know that the eye of the public is upon me, and / know that I shall be 
held responsible for every act. If that were not repeated, the last clause 
might be defined as an independent proposition: as, I know that the eye 
of the public is upon me, and / shall be held responsible for every act. 

504. That the eye of the public is upon me, is the logical object of the 
verb know, but not being a substantive it is not parsed by rule 7th, as the 
grammatical objective case governed by know; nor is know here gram- 
matically defined to be a transitive verb, for it does not terminate upon a 
substantive in the objective case. (147.) 

^*^ Horn Tooke, Webster, and others reject the idea of tfiat^s being a conjunction. 
It is true that when it is used as a conjunction, there commonly seems to be an omis- 
sion of some connecting word: as, The miser has lived poor (for) that he may die rich, 
I am sure (of) that he has wronged himself. He was so parsimonious (as) that he de- 
nied himself many comforts. But in such examples supplying ellipses is very awkward 
and it is doubtless preferable, we think, to call that a conjunction. 

505. Rem. i. Two conjunctions sometimes occur together, but each 
connects its own respective clauses: as, " Always act as if you were seen 
by others"= Always act as you would do, if you were seen by others. 

506. What if, and what tJiough, are poetic expressions that likewise in- 
dicate the ellipses: as, 

*' What if it tempt you toward the flood, my lord." — Shak. 
" AVhat though we wade in wealth or soar in fame." — Young. 

That is, what would be the consequence if it should tempt you toward 
the flood, my lord? 

What can it avail us, though we wade in wealth or soar in fame. 

507. Some Conjunctions and some modifying words require 
correlatives or Corresponding Conjunctions to be adapted to 
them ; Examples : 

502. Mention a distinguishable difference between the relative and the conjunction? 
— In what respect is the conjunction like the relative? — Example. 503. If that were 
not repeated, how might the last clause be used? — Example. 504. In the last exam, 
pie, why is not know called transitive? 505. What is said of two conjunctions occur- 
ring together? — Examples. 506. What is said of ichat if and what though? — Exam- 
ples. i%y. 507, What do some conjunctions and some modifying words require? — 
Examples. 



ETYMOLOGY. 139 

Corresponding Conjunctions. 

Though -yet : as, Though he is rich, yet he is not proud. 

Both -and : as, Both he and his sister are here. 

Either -or : as. Either he or she is here. 

Neitiier -nor ; as, Neither he nor she is here. 

Whether-or : as. Whether he will go or stay, I know not. ' 

Such -as : as. It was such an assembly as earth never saw. 

So -that: as. The hill was so steep that we could not ascend. 

So -as: as. The company was so large as to be innumerable. 

As -as : as, She is as amiable as her sister. 

As -so : as, As virtue advances, so vice recedes. 

508. Rem. i. Frequently the correlatives are parsed as one conjunction : 
thus, the expression, Though~yet, in the first example, connects the clauses, 
he is rich — he is not proud. 

509. Rem. ii. Both, either, and neither, when used as adjectives, relate 
to only two things, or two classes; but when they are corresponding con- 
junctions, they sometimes refer to more than two : as, 

" Both turned, and under open sky ador'd 
The God that made both sky, earth, air, and heaven." 

Neither of the two can accommodate me, for they can neither see, nor 
hear, nor speak. 

510. Rem. hi. The poets frequently use, as correlatives, or-or, nor-nor: 
as, 

" Not to be tempted from the tender task, 

Or (either) by sharp hunger, or by smooth delight." — Thomson. 
" Fancy and pride seek things at vast expense. 

Which relish nor to reason nor to sense." — Young. 

EXERCISE 73.-— Parsing 

*' The choice of follies fastens onthe great : 
None clings more obstinate than fancy fond." 

"What we hear moves less than what we see." 
** Some feelings are to mortals given, 
With less of earth in them than heaven." 

<« — _ as Atlas groan'd 

The world beneath, we groan beneath an hour." 

Name the correlatives in the list. 508. How are the correlatives frequently parsed ?— 
In the first example, what does tkough-yet connect 1 509. What is said of hoth^ 
either, and neither? — Examples. 510. What is said of or-or, nor-nor? — Examples. 

[ Lesson 73.] Exercise 73. 



140 ENGLISH. GRAMMAR. 

" As Csesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate, I rejoice at 
it; as he was valiant, I honor him; but as he was ambitious, I slew him." 
We admit such as are studious. " My punishment is greater than I can 
bear." We have more than we want, as appears from this list of names. 
I have more pupils than I know what to do with. 

''Temple and tower went down, nor left a site." 
" This thirst of kindred blood, my sons, detest, 
Nor turn your face against your countr^^'s breast." 
Since you like it, I desire that you shall take it all. 
" Sir, I admit your general rule, 
That every poet is a fool; 
But you yourself will serve to show it, 
That every fool is not a poet." 
He acts as if he were master of the house. 

"What though my soul fantastic measures trod 

O'er fairy fields." 
''What though each spark of earth-born rapture fly 
The quivering lip, pale cheek, and closing eye ! 
Bright to the soul the seraph hands convey 
The morniDg dream of life's eternal day." 
" A most enchanting Vvizard did abide, 
Than whom a fiend more fell is nowhere found." 
" Though he was rich, yet for our sakes he became poor." He is in 
both the high school and the college. I am content whether you go or 
stay. "As virtue is its own reward, so vice is its own punishment." 
" He spares nor friend nor foe." 

THE INTERJECTIONS. 

511. An Interjection is an exclamatory word useclto express 
some passion or emotion of the speaker. 

512. Interjection is derived from the Latin inierjectio — Inter, between, 
andjacio, to throw. It is thrown between or among words to express 
emotion. 

513. An Interjection has no grammatical dependence on other words: 
as, 

" What! can you lull the winged winds a&leep?" — Campbell. 

[ Lesson 74.] .511. Wliat is an inteijection ? 512. From what is the term interjec- 
tion derived? 513. Is an interjection dependent on other words ? — Example. 



ETYMOLOGY. 141 

514. The principal ones are found in the following 

List of In terjections. 

Oh! Ah! Alas! 0! Ha! Strange! Fie! Fudge! Away! Aha! 
Huzza! Hurrah! Lo! Behold! Hark! Adieu! Avaunt! Pshaw! 

515. Rem. i. In rapid thought almost any word may be used as an in- 
terjection, implying what would otherwise require several words to ex-> 
press : as, Adieu is equal to "I commend you to God." /fa rA:='* listen 
to the s-ound." WeZco7«.e=" you are welcome." 

516. Rem. ii. Interjections have no government of case; but, accord- 
ing to an idiom of the language, they usually require the first person 
following them to be in the objective case, though the second person after 
them is always in the nominative case : as. Ah me! O thou! 

In the first example there may be, probably, an ellipsis of some gov- 
erning word understood: as, "Ah! pity me:" or, "Ah! what has hap- 
pened to me ?" 

517. Rem. hi. Such as the following are called interjectional phrases : 
as. Folly in the extreme! Ungrateful wretch! Away with him! What 
ingratitude! O cruel reverse of fortune! 

518. Rem. iv. The too frequent use of inteijections, in colloquial style, 
indicates more sound than sense; and sensible people are not disposed to 
receive the former for the latter : as, Ah indeed! hush! Oh my! Is it 
possible! You don't tell me so! 

Exercise 74 . — Parsing. 

"Away! begone! and give a whirlwind room, 
Or I will blow you up like dust ! — Avaunt! 
Madness but meanly represents my toil, 
Eternal discord. 

Fury! revenge, disdain and indignation 
Tear my swollen breast, make way for fire and tempest : 
My brain is burst, debate and reason quench'd : 
The storm is up, and my hot, bleeding heart 
Splits with the rack; while passions, like the wind. 
Rise up to heaven and put out all the stars." 

514. Name the interjections in the list. ^>^). .515. In rapid thought, what word 
may be used as an interjection ? — Give examples. 516. In what case is the first person 
when it follows the interjection ? — Does the interjection govern the objective case, or 
is it more probable that there is an ellipsis of some governing word 1 517. Mention 
some interjectional phrases. 518. What is said of the too frequent use of interjections 
in colloquial style ? — Examples. 

[ Lesson 75.] Exercise 74. 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ttS^To die for one's country, is ^'^'^glorious. It is more blessed n^Ho give 
than to receive. He was rejected on account of ^i^^his ^^^'^being a young 
n^^msLU. That gentleman and scholar n^^has finished Ti^^his course. Every 
word and every act ^^^has had its effect. 

*' He who preserves me, to whom I owe my being, whose I am, and 
whom I serve, is eternal." " These are the things which God, who can- 
not lie, hath said, should come to pass." 

Our Father, who art in Heaven! Hallowed be thy name; thy kingdom 
come, thy will be done on earth as it is done in heaven. Give us this day 
our daily bread; and forgive our trespasses, as we forgive those who tres- 
pass against us. Lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil. 
For thine is the kingdom, the power, and the glory, forever and ever. 
Amen. 

FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. 

619. Figures of etymology are departures from the usual 
form of words. 

Figures. 

Aphaeresis, Tmesis, 

Syncope, Paragoge, 

Apocope, Synseresis, 

Prosthesis, Diaeresis. 

520. AphcBresis is the taking of a letter or syllable from the beginning 
of a word: as, 'gainst = against. 

Syncope is taking from the middle of a word: as, lov'd. 

Apocope is taking from the end of a word: as, thro'. 

Prosthesis is adding to the beginning of a word: as, enchain = chain. 

Tmesis is introducing a word between the parts of a compound word: 
as, which side soever, = whichsoever side. 

Paragoge is adding to the end of a Vv^ord: as, awaken = awake* 

SyncBvesis is contracting two syllables into one: as, learned = learn-ed. 

DuEresis is separating two vowels, occurring together, into different 
syllables: as, Orthoepy. 

[Lesson 76.] 519. What are figures of etymology? — Name the eight figures. 520. 
What is aphseresis? — Example. — Syncope? — Example. — Apocope? — Example. — Pros- 
thesis? — Example. — Tmesis? — Example. — Paragoge? — Example. — Synseresis? — Ex- 
ample. — Diceresis? — Example. <>0. 



PART III. 

SYNTAX. 

521. Syntax treats of the proper Agreement, Connection, and 
Government, of words in a sentence. 

522. The Agreement or concord of words, is their similarity 
of person, number, gender, case, or form: thus, A pronoun 
agrees with its antecedent in person, number, and gender. A 
verb agrees with its nominative in person and number. 

523. Connection is the union of words and sentences effected 
by prepositions and conjunctions, 

524. Government is that power v/hich one word has over an- 
other to cause it to assume some particular modification : thus, 
Transitive verbs and prepositions require substantives fol- 
lowing them to be in the objective case. 

SENTENCE. 

525. A Sentence is a number of words so arranged as to 
form a complete proposition. 

526. A sentence is either simple or compound. 

527. A Simple sentence contains a nominative with a eom- 
plete finite* verb agreeing with it : as, Life is short. Art is 
long. The life of man is a vapor. 

528. A Compound sentence is composed of two or more sim- 
ple members or clauses connected : as, Life is short and art is 
long. 

* An entire verb, not in the infinitive mood, is called a finite verb. 



521. Of what does syntax treat? 522. What is agreement or concord? — Examples. 
523. What is connection? 524. What is government? — Examples. 

[Lesson 77.] 525. What is a sentence? 526. How is a sentence denominated?— 
527. What does a simple sentence contain? — Examples. 528. Of what is a compouad 
sentence composed? — Examples. 

18 (143) 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The clauses composing this compound sentence, are simple; but in 
the following, they are compound: as, "The ox knoweth his owner, and 
the ass his master's crib; but Israel doth not know: my people do not 
consider." 

529. The principal parts of a simple sentence are the sub- 
ject or nominative, and that which is affirnjed of the suhject, 
called the predicate. 

530. The grammatical subject is not always tlie entire loyical subject. 
In the sentence. The life of man is a vapor, life is the grammatical sub- 
ject of the verb is; but. The life of jnaUf forms the logical subject. In the 
sentence, Art is long, art is both the grammatical and logical subject of 
the verb is. 

531. The predicate is either the verb alone, or the verb and 
its adj anct or complement : as, He falls. He falls a sacri" 
fice to amhitio7i. 

532. A phrase is two or more words occurring together that 
do not express a complete proposition: as, To do good. To 
be plain with you. 

^^To produce the proper arrangement, connection, and government, of words in 
sentence -making, the pupil should study carefully, the following Rules, Notes, and Re- 
marks. 

RULES. 

VERBS — Agreement, 

Rule 1. A771 agrees with the first person singular. 

Rule 2. The indicative is inflected to t, si, or est, agreeing 
with the second person singular. 

Rule 3. The indicative present is inflected to s, es, oy tk, 
agreeing with the third person singular. 

Rule 4. Was agrees with the first or third person singular ; 
as, I was ; he was. 

Rule 5. Are and were are always plural, except when were 
in hypothesis agrees with the singular : as, We are ; we were ; 
if I were. 

529. What are the principal parts of a simple sentence? 530. Is the grammatical 
subject always the entire logical subject? — Examples. 531. What is meant by the 
predicate? — Examples. 532, What is a phrase? — Examples. 1K>. Repeat Rule 1. 
—Rule 2.— Rule 3.— Rule 4.— Rule 5. 



SYNTAX. 145 

EXERCISE 75. — False Syntax. 
In this exercise, change the nominative to agree with its verb. 

Model. . We should be /, for am agrees with i\\& first person singular. 

(R. 1.) We am Alpha and Omega. We, Nicholas, am autocrat of all 
the Russias. He, whose dutj^ it is to command, am bound to inflict the 
penalty. 

(R. 2.) O Lord you art very great, you art clothed with honor and 
majesty. Canst ye bind the unicorn with his bands, in the furrow? 
*' Would thou have me wed the uncircumcised? " Thou v/ho knows the 
fact, can state it. 

(R. 3.) The labors of the industrious man,enriches his offspring. They 
that is faithful in that which is least, is faithful also in much. To the 
rnen that has done heroic deeds, the victor's crowns is given. Whence 
Cometh yon mighty streams? Doth they not rise in the mountains? 
There hath they beginning. 

(R. 4.) We was reflecting on the brevity of human life. Was they 
not present during the transaction? You was sent on that embassy. 
The articles was sold, but the memoranda was lost. The travelers, at mid- 
night, was suddenly aroused by the cry of fire! fire! Was the strangers 
consumed? They was not. 

(R. 5.) The side are longer than the ends. The song of the birds are 
sweet. The order of the officer were instantly obeyed. Were not the 
cause sufficient? 

EXERCISE 7 6. 

In this exercise, change the verb to agree with its nominative. 
Model. .Reads is 3d per. sing., and should be ready to agree with 1 1st 
person. 

I reads. Thou knoweth all things. Has the books been sent. On 
one) side was twelve windows. There are an abundance of trees and 
shrubs. There were a convention of delegates. The leaders of the mob 
was imprisoned. Some people knows more than others. Many of the 
common people uuderstandeth their rights, and is disposed to maintain 
them. The king of England, with the house of Lords, compose the 
ruling power of the kingdom. The prince, as well as the people, were 

Exercise 75. 

[Lesson 78.] Exercise 7G. 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

to blame. I, the vsister and wife of influential magistrates, the mother 
of one of the most distinguished orators at the bar, is now forsaken and 
destitute. He w^as forced to account for it by one of the most absurd, 
unphilosophical notions, that was ever started. 

(R. 5, Latter clause.) If the cause \vas just it would be encouraged. 
Was I young again my time should be better employed. I could not ac- 
company him to-morrow unless he was going my road. I would that 
thou wast either cold or hot. 

«' The noble Brutus 
Hath told you Csesar was ambitious: 
If it were so, it was a grievous fault." 



Note 1. When the auxiliary is omitted through ellipsis, the verb has 
the same form as when the auxiliary is expressed: as, If he come to-mor- 
row I will see him. — Not, If he comes to-morrow, for we cannot say, If 
he shall comes. 

Obs. Aft3r relatives and the adverbs of time and place, the present verb may be 
used in any of its inflections, to express the relative time of a future action: as, We 
will receive whoever comes: when he comes we will receive him. 

Note 2. Auxiliaries, signifying to have or ta be, are prefixed to the 
perfect, and not to the preterit form: as, We have spoken it; it is spoken. 
— Not, have spoke, nor is spoke; for spoke is peculiarly the preterit form, 
and as such it can have no auxiliary. 

Note 3. The preterit tense and the perfect participle should not be 
used, indifferently, the one for the other : Thus, instead of, We seen the 
letter wrote, say, W^e saw the letter written; for seen is a perfect partici- 
ple, and should be saw in the preterit tense : wrote is the preterit tense, 
whereas the perfect participle written is required. 

Note 4. A past period, continued to the present, is referred to by a verb 
in the present-perfect tense : as, I have known him for ten j'ears. — Not, 
I know him for ten years. 

Note 5. The present-perfect is not used in reference to a past period ex- 
pressed : thus, instead of, I have written yesterday, Say, I wrote yesterday. 

1. When the auxiliary is omitted through ellipsis, what form has the verb ? — Exam- 
ples. — Why not say, If he comes to-morrow 7 — How may the present verb be used after 
relatives, and adverbs of time and place 1 — Example. 2. Are auxiliaries prefixed to 
the perfect, or to the preterit form "? — Examples. — "VMiy not say, Have spoke, or is 
spoke? i}zf 3. \'\Tiat is said of the use of the preterit tense and the perfect parti- 
ciple 1 — Examples. — Why not say, We see7i the letter wrote? 4. What tense is era- 
ployed to refer to a past period continued to the present 1 — Example. 5. Is the present- 
perfect used in reference to a pastperiod expressed? — Do we say, I havewrittenyeS' 
terday ? — What is the proper expression ? 



SYNTAX. 147 

EXEE,CISE 77. 

(N. 1.) If he goes again, I will accompany him. If he is here to-mor- 
row, I will see him. If the articles are sold next week, I shall leave the 
city. Thou canst not be forgiven unless thou returnest and doest better. 
If thou wilt believe and repentest, the promise is to thee. Whenever he 
does live temperately, and exercises freely, his health improves. Doth 
the eagle mount up at thy command and makes her nest on high ? Doth 
he not leave the ninety and ni-ne, and goeth into the wilderness to seek 
that which is lost ? 

(N. 2.) Having saw the danger into which he had ran, he turned in- 
stantly to the right. Not a word was spoke nor wrote during the even- 
ing. The witness having swore falsely, an innocent man was threw 
into prison. Hadst thou but shook thy head, the sign would have been 
took. It has came too late. 

(N. 3.) He told what he seen He given a full account of the affair. 
They slain the animal in the street. He lain weltering in his gore. He 
heard a strange language spoke. He speaks of a great work began. 

(N. 4.) Here is one that I knov/ these many years. They now con- 
tinue Vv^th me three days, and have taken nothing. I am teaching ever 
since the days of my youth. 

(N. 5.) I have seen the Governor last winter. It has rained several 
days ago. He has travelled through the western States, and returned to 
ISlew York last May. Our parents have kindly watched over us when 
we were infants, but we have poorly repaid them. 



Note 6. The verb employed should be of that denomination which will 
best convey the sense : as. Planters cultivate cotton. — Not, grow cotton; 
for grow is properly intransitive. There is a house to be sold, — Not, There 
is a house to sell; for sell is active, whereas the passive is required. 

Note 7. Uncliangeable truths are expressed in the present tense instead 
of the preterit : as. He told us that two and two make four. — Not, made 
four; for the assertion is as true now as it was then, or ever will be. 

Note 8. Words seldom separate the particle to from the infinitive verb 
to which it belongs : as, She is disposed to honor him more. — Not, to 
mwe honor him. 

[ Lesson 79.] Exercise 77. 

6. What is said respecting the denomination of the verb employed? — Examples. — 
Why not say, Planters grow cotton ? — Why not say, There is a house to sell? 7. In 
what tense are unchangeable truths usually expressed 1 — Example. — Why not say. 
He told us two and two made four 1 8. Do words ever come between the particle to 
and the infinitive to which it belongs ?— .Example. 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note 9. The infinitive, when it follows the active verbs bid, dare, need, 
make, hear, see, feel, lei, and some others, commonly drops the particle to: 
as. He bids me come. — Not, to come. 

Note 10. When the act or state of the infinitive is not previous to the 
time referred to, the present tense is used : as, Cincinnati appears to be a 
flourishing city ; but. 

When the act or state of the infinitive is previous to the time referred 
to, the perfect tense is used : as, Tadraor in the Wilderness appears to have 
been a flourishing city. 

Obs. — The infinitive may follow any part of speech : as, I desire my pupils to learn: 
I request them to learn : they strive to learn : they are eager to learn: they are always 
to learn : they are about to learn : some are more anxious to play than to learn. 
" O! to abide in the desert with thee." 

Note 11. Participles have the same government, and are subject to the 
same qualifications as their entire verbs : as, I saw them driving him 
swiftly. 

EXERCISE 7 8. 

(N. 6.) I sit them away. I have risen them up. I will lie them down. 
Yesterday we set conversing all day. When the moon raises we will 
depart. Your book lays on the table. He was entered into connexion. 
The house is to build. I have heard of some furniture to sell. 

(N. 7.) My teacher taught me that the earth was round;— that the sun 
was the luminary of the day; — that the moon borrowed her light from 
the sun; — that the heavens declared the glory of God; — that man was 
mortal; — that the righteous Vv^ere rewarded; — that the wicked were pun- 
ished; — that God was just. 

(N. 8.) We ought to, whenever it is in our power, relieve the distressed. 
Alexander is said to bitterly have wept. I intend to, at some future time, 
go to Europe. 

(N. 9.) He dare not to proceed hastily. You need not to travel so fast. 
We made the horse to run. I have heard her to sing. I have seen some 
young persons to conduct themselves very discreetly. Let him to proceed. 

(N. ]0.) I intended to have called on my return. He expected me to 
have dined with him. We were anxious to have gone, but were disap- 
pointed. I desired to have seen you. 

9. After what verbs does the infinitive drop the particle to? — Examples. 10. When 
is the present of the infinitive used 1 — Example. — When is the perfect of the infini- 
tive used? — Example. — Give an example of the infinitive following a noun — A pro- 
noun — A verb — An adjective — An adverb — A preposition — A conjunction — An in- 
terjection. 11. What is said of the government and qualification of participles 1 — 
JElsample. Exercise 78. <X>. 



SYNTAX. 149 

SUBJECTS OF VERBS . 

Rule 6. The subject of the indicative mood is in the nomi- 
native case : as, Thou must be attentive. — Not, Thee must be ; 
for thee is objective, and must he requires the nominative. 

Note 12. A sentence or phrase is sometimes made nominative to the 
indicative mood : as, To assist the poor and needy, is charitable. — Not, 
ore charitable; for the substantive phrase is singular, and are is plural. 

Note 13. Every indicative verb must have a nominative expressed or 
implied. The following is elliptical : 

" Who Hves to nature, rarely can be poor." 
That is, He who lives, &c. 

Exceptions. The transitive verbs need and wanty are sometimes used in a general 
sense without a nominative, either expressed or implied : as, " There is no evidence 
of the fact, and there needs none." — Webster. 

"Nor did there want 
Cornice nor frieze " — Milton. 

Note 14. Verbs, not in the indicative mood, are often used without a 
subject expressed: as, *'Lei us make man in our image." 

"To die;— To sleep;— 
To sleep! perchance to dreani — aye, there's the rub.'* 

Getting drunk, is a beastly practice. 

EXERCISE 79. 

(R. 6.) Thee must love thy neighbor as thyself. Him that willfully 
disobeys the warnings of conscience, is not far from ruin. Her that is 
virtuous, deserves esteem. Them that oppress the poor, shall come to 
want. Them that honor me, I will honor; and them that despise me, 
shall be lightly esteemed. Whom shall be sent to admonish him ? Whom- 
soever is content, enjoys happiness. * 

(N. 12.) Telling lies, are sinful. Galling names, do no good. To do 
unto others as we would have others do unto us, are required of us all. 
That my vices should bring disgrace upon my children, wound me to the 
heart. For me to abide in the flesh, are more needful for you. 

(N. 13.) "He was a man whose inclinat4ons led him to be corrupt, and 
had great abilities to manage the business." 

" Will martial flames forever fire thy mind 
And never, never be to heaven resigned ?" 

Repeat Rule 6. — Example. — Why not say, 'Thee must be attentive 7' 12. Is a 
sentence or phrase ever nominative to the indicative mood ? — Example. — Why not say, 
* To assist the poor and needy, are charitable V 13. What verbs have the nomina- 
tive ? — Example. — What is said of need and wanf? — Examples. 14. "VMiat is said of 
verbs not in the indicative mood '?— Examples. Exercise 79. 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

OBJECTS OF VERBS. 

Rule 7. When a substantive is the object of a transitive 
verb, it is in the objective case : as, Him that is indolent, re- 
prove sharply. — Not, He that is indolent, reprove; for he is 
nominative, and should be him in the objective case, the object 
of reprove. 

Rule 8. Two objectives may follow transitive verbs of ask- 
ing, teaching, giving, and some others : as, He asked me a ques- 
tion. I taught him grammar. 

EXERCISE 80. 

(R. 7.) Wilt thou remember I ? I shall never forget thou. She that 
is penitent, v/e can forgive. They endeavor to control we who are more 
experienced. Ye who were dead, hath he quickened. Esteeming their- 
selves wise, they became fools. They that honor me, I will honor. Who 
did they send on that mission ? The officer who he had saved, slew him. 
They respect whosoever (407) the court favors. 

SUBSTANTIVES IN THE PREDICATE. 

Rule 9. When a substantive follows an intransitive or a 
passive verb, and implies the same thing as the subject of the 
verb, it agrees with the subject in case : as, It is I. He was 
called John. — Not, It is me ; for is, being intransitive, may 
have the same case after it as before it, when both words imply 
the same thing. 

Rem. 1. The predicate nominative sometimes comes before the verb; but the verb 
must agree with that which is more naturally its subject :* as, What am J ? Who art 
thou 1 i. e., I am what ? Thou art who 1 

Rem. 2. The predicate substantive agrees with the subject in case, but not always 
in other properties : as, "I was eyes to the blind, and feet was I to the lame." 

* "The cause of his failure were the heavy losses he liad sustained." Here, losses 
seems to be more naturally the nominative to the verb were; for the losses were the 
first or prime cause of his failure. " The wages of sin is death." " His pavilion were 
dark waters and thick clouds of the sky." = Death is the wage-s of sin. Dark waters 
and thick clouds of the sky were his pavilion. 

[ Lesson 80.] Repeat Rule 7. — Example. — Why not say, ^He that is indolent, 
reprove sharply ? Repeat Rule 8. — Examples. — Exercise 80. Repeat Rule 9. — Ex- 
amples. — Why not say, 'It is me?^ 1. What is said of the predicate nominative ? — 
Examples. 2. In what property does the predicate substantive agree with the subject 
of the verb 1 Does it necessarily agree in other properties ? — Examples. 



SYNTAX. 151 

Note 15. A phrase is sometimes used as a predicate nominative : as, 
To enjoy is to obey. 

Note 16. In abstract phrases, there is often a predicate nominative 
witiiout a subject nominative: as, To be surety for a stranger is danger- 
ous. His being Judge exempts him. 

EXERCISE 81. 

(R. 9.) It is me, be not afraid. It was certainly thee. I took it to 
be thou. If I were him I should act differently. If it had been her, we 
should have been disappointed. Whom were they? who do you fancy 
them to be? whom do men say that I am? 

NOMINATIVES AND OBJECTIVES — Variously Constructed, 

EuLE 10. When a substantive follows an intransitive or a 
passive verb and implies a different thing from the subject of 
the verb, it is in the objective case absolute : as. He came 
home."^ He was taught grammar. 

EuLE 11. When one substantive follows another to identify 
it, it agrees with the former in case, being in apposition to it : 
as, Paul the Apostle. John the Baptist. 

Note 17. A singular substantive, or a distributive, is sometimes put in 
apposition to the plural number: as, <' They reap vanity, every one with 
his neighbor." 

Rule 12. When a substantive is addressed or placed before 
a participle and there is no word on which its case depends, it 
is in the nominative case independent : as, my son ! The 
son being slain, the father wept. 

* The noun liome and those expressing time, direction, distance, measure, etc., are 
commonly used absolutely: as, He came home that way last night, having travelled 
forty miles. In these examples some would suppose an ellipsis, and supply preposi- 
tions in parsing: as, He came to home, along that way, on last night, having travelled 
through the space of forty miles. But in such examples, the use of prepositions adds 
neither force nor beauty to the expression, but rather derogates from it. 

'^ Norns signifying the time when, and time how long, weight, measure, and distancCi 
are put in the objective case absolute." — Ainsworth. 

15. Is a phrase ever used as a predicate nominative ? — Example. 16. Is there ever a 
predicate nominative without a subject nominative? — Examples. — Exercise 81. < >^> 
Repeat rule 10. — Examples. Rule 11. — Examples. 17. Is a singular substantive 
ever put in apposition to the plural"? — Example. Repeat rule 12. 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Kem. 3. Nouns detached from a sentence, are usually called nominative indepen 
dent: as, Grammar. Comstock's Philosophy. O the times! O the manners! 

Note 18. Phrases are sometimes used in an absolute or independent 
manner: as, "To tell the truth, I was in fault." "Properly speaking, 
there is no difference." 

Note 19. In grave style, an independent nominative is sometimes intro- 
duced merely to draw attention to what may be said of it: as. The Pil- 
grim Fathers, where are they? He that formed the ear, can he not hear? 

E,EM. 4. In familiar style, a pronoun is sometimes improperly made to follow the 
noun, as though it required both to be nominative to the same verb: as, Ellen, she 
vi'rites a good hand. (Expunge she.) 

EuLE 13. A substantive used to answer a question, agrees 
in case with the interrogative : as, Who created us ? He. 
Whom should we obey ? Him. Who lives there ? Sisters 
of charity. 

EXERCISE 8 2. 

(R. 11.) It is Mr. Watson, /iim who gave you the book. That man, 
him that was here yesterday, has called again to-day. We ought to love 
God, he who sustains us every moment. I supposed it to be Mr. Brown, 
he who taught me grammar. It is recorded by Luke, he who wrote the 
Acts of Apostles. "We should love, fear, and obey the author of our 
being, even he who has the power to reward or punish us forever." 

(R. 12.) thee my voice inspire. Him having died, his relative was 
appointed in his place. Me being offended, he retracted. All are sick, 
her only excepted. Us having spoken, the assembly adjourned. 

(Rem. 4.) Many words they darken speech. The cares of this world, 
they often choke the growth of virtue. 

(R. 13.) Who drew that picture? Him. Whose is it? Henry. Whom 
does it resemble? He. For whom was it drawn? Mr. Clay, he who 
was slain in Mexico. 

PRONOUNS. 

Rule. 14, A Pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, 

3. In what case are nouns when detached from a sentence? — Examples. 18. Are 
phrases ever absohite or independent? — Examples. 19. Give examples in which the 
independent nominative is used simply to draw attention to the subject 4. Give an 
example in which the pronoun improperly follows the noun. — Repeat Rule 13. — Ex- 
amples. — Exercise 82. 

[Lesson 81.] Repeat rule 14. — Example. — Why not say every man should be care- 
ful of their reputation? 



SYNTAX. 153 

number, and gender : as, Every man sHould be careful of his 
reputation, — Not, their reputation ; for their, being plural, can- 
not agree with man in the singular. 

Note 20. Who^ and that relate to intelligent beings, and w^Aic/i and ^/la^, 
to inanimate things, young children and brutes. 

Note 21. After who, same, the superlative degree, and persons form- 
ing only a part of the antecedent, that is preferred to who: as. Who that 
has any sense of propriety would have acted thus? — Not, Who who has 
any sense of propriety, etc. 

Note 22. The relative should generally be expressed, especially when 
of the nominative case: as. There were many that understood me. — Not, 
There were many understood me. 

EXERCISE 83. 

(R. 14.) Rebecca took goodly raiment and put them on Jacob. Every 
one must judge for themselves. We gave him molasses and he ate them. 
Why do the people rejoice in that which should give it sorrow? I who 
commands you, am the man. The sun exhibits dark spots on her sur- 
face. The moon borrows his light from the sun. 

(N. 20.) Here is the man which committed the offense. The fowl 
whom nature has taught to dip the wing in water. That woman which 
conducts well her own household, deserves praise. The beast whom I 
rode was afterward sold. They which seek knowledge will certainly find 
it. That infant who now sleeps in its mother's arms, may eventually 
rule a great nation. The building who then fell, has been reared again. 
"And as a hare whom hounds and horns pursue 
Pants to the place from whence at first he flew." 

(N. 21.) Who, who has any feeling of philanthropy, can oppose the 
appropriation ? That physician is the same who practiced in Richmond. He 
is the most intelligent man who has ever written on that subject. Charles 
the twelfth, king of Sweden, was one of the greatest madmen whom the 
world ever saw. I was surprised to hear of the people and property who 
were lost. Was it the wind, or thou who shut the door? 

* A pronoun represents a thing personified in the figurative sense: as, " The old crab 
who advised the young ones." But when the noun is used metaphorically the pro- 
noun agrees with it in the literal sense: as, " Washington was the bulwark which pro- 
tected our freedom." 

20. To what do xcho and that relate? — Which and that? 21. In what instances is 
that preferred to who? 22. Should the relative generally be expressed? — Example. — 
Why not say, There were many understood me?— Exercise 83. ^KJ- 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(N. 22.) My uncle has a daughter lives with him. You have a sister 
resembles you very much. We speak that we do know, and testify that 
we have seen. I am dissatisfied with the manner I have spent my time. 



Note 23. A pronoun should not be placed so far from its antecedent 
or in such a situation as to obscure the sense: thus, instead of, "They 
are like irrational beings that devour their offspring," say. They that de- 
vour their offspring, are like irrational beings. 

Rem. 5. It is often better to repeat the noun than to express a pronoun and leave 
its antecedent doubtful: thus, instead of, " We see the beautiful variety of colors in 
the rainbow and are led to consider the cause of it;" say, "We see the beautiful va- 
liety of colors in the rainbow and are led to consider the cause of that variety." 

Here the use of the pronoun it would leave the sentence ambiguous; for it might 
then seem doubtful whether variety or rainbow should be regarded as the antecedent. 

Note 24. Pronouns referring to the same antecedent, agree uniformly 
throughout the sentence: as, " thou wJio art and who wast and who art 
to come." "I am the Lord that maketh all things; that stretcheth forth 
the heavens alone: that spreadeth abroad the earth by myself, etc." V/hat 
thou didst give me, I return to thee. — Not, I return to you; for thou is 
adapted to grave style and 7jou to familiar style. 

Note 25. The pronouns it and which sometimes represent a sentence 
or phrase: as. She is handsome and she knows it: he visits me daily in 
my affliction, which is a kindness I can never forget. 

Note 26. They, who, and it are often indefinite in their application: as, 
They say it never rains in the moon, but, who can tell? 

EXERCI S E 84. 

(N. 23.) He is like a beast of prey that is void of compassion. That 
man acts upon the principle of a wise philosopher, who every morning 
plans the transactions of the day and diligently follows out that plan. 
There are many people in China whose support is derived almost entirely 
from rice. 

(N. 24.) I tell you that thou art mistaken. I know you now for I see 
thy face. He who reads and reasons much, and that exercises daily in 
the open air, may acquire a fund of knowledge. It is remarkable that 
Holland, against which the war was undertaken, and that in the very be- 
ginning was reduced the brink of destruction, lost nothing. 



23. What is said respecting the placing of the pronoun? — Example. 5. Wliat is 
said of repeating the noun, instead of expressing the pronoun?— Example. 24. What 
is said of pronouns referring to the same antecedent?— Examples.— Why not say, 
'What thou didst give me I return to you? 25. What is said of it and which?— Ex. 
amples. 26. What of they, who, and i^?— Examples.— Exercise 84. 



SYNTAX. 155 

POSSESSIVE CASE. 

Rule 15. The Possessive Case points out the substantive 

possessed. 

Note 27, A noun in the possessive case is followed by an apostrophe, 
and usually by the apostrophic s; as, Hear those ladies' lessons. Here is 
a book of Henry's (books). 

Note 28. When the apostrophic s would produce a concurrence of 
hissing sounds of difficult pronunciation, it should be omitted: as, For 
goodness' sake.— Not, For goodness's sake. 

Note 29. When several possessive nouns stand in apposition, and the 
thing possessed not expressed after them, the possessive or genitive sign 
may be annexed to the first only, and understood to the rest: as, That 
farm was Clinton's, the governor of the state. 

Rem. 6. The last possessive should have the genitive sign when the thing possessed 
is expressed after it: as, That was Clinton the governor's farm. 

Note. 30. When several possessive nouns in connection or in apposi- 
tion, possess the same thing expressed after them, the sign is annexed to 
the last only: as. Mason and Dixon's line. — Not, Mason's and Dixon's 
line, because we refer to one and the same line. 

Rem. 7. When several words are used essentially as one complex noun, the genitive 
sign is annexed to the last: as, Your father-in-law's estate. John the baptist's head. 
The Duke of York's title. 

Obs. York, here, regarded as a single word, is properly in the objective case; but 
the three words Duke of York, are parsed as one complex noun, and it is the adjunct, 
and not the principal word that has the possessive sign annexed to it. It would how- 
ever be better to say. The title of the Duke of York. 

Note 31. When several possessive nouns possess different things, the 
sign is annexed to each: as, Webster's and Murray's grammar. — Not, 
Webster and Murray's grammar; for here the same grammar is not re- 
ferred to. 

exerciseSo. 

(N. 27.) These ladies misfortunes are great. Those boys sports are 
amusing. This lady' love continues. That boy' ideas are good. James 
Smith, his book. Ellen Lewis, her grammar. 

(N. 28.) I have heard those young ladies's lessons. Those girls's re- 
cess is given at ten o'clock. Ask no questions for conscience's sake. If 

[Lesson 82.] Repeat Rule 15. 27. How is a noun in the possessive case distin- 
guished'? — Examples. 28. When should the apostrophic s be omitted? — Example. 
29. When may the possessive sign be affixed to the first only of several possessive 
nouns? — Example. SO. When to the last only? — Example. 31. When to each? — Exam- 
ple. — We say " Mason and Dixon's line," but not " Webster and Murray's Grammar]'* 
why is this? — Exercise 85. C>^>. 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ye are persecuted for righteousnesses sake, happy are ye. And he cast 
himself down at Jesus's feet. 

(N. 29.) I reside at Lord Stormont's my old patron's and benefactor's. 
This Psalm is David's the king's, priests's, and prophet's of the people. 

(N. 30.) Cain's and Abel's parents were Adam and Eve. For David's 
my servant's sake. 

(N. 3L) Many of Kentucky and Ohio's roads are Mcx^damized. Nei- 
ther I\Iadison nor Polk's administration was free from war. 



Note. 32. Nothing, except some necessary modifying word, should 
ever come between the possessive case and the name of the object pos- 
sessed; thus, instead of, Tlie old shepherd's, as he was called, faithful dog; 
say. The faithful dog of the old shepherd, as he was called. 

Note 33. The possessive case frequently points out a participial phrase; 
as, I am aware of Jus having written that letter. — Not, of him having 
written that letter: for the phrase, having ivritten that letter is the logical 
object of the preposition- o/. and therefore him, the objective case, should 
not be used as the object. 

Obs. The objective case, following the preposition of, frequently suggests the idea 
of possession: thus, A son of the president, is equivalent to, The president's son. 

Note 34. When the possessive case has of before it and no objective 
expressed after it, there is reference to only a part of the objects pos- 
sessed: thus, 'A speech of Henry Clay's,' means, 'A speech of Henry 
Clay's speeches.' 

Sem. 8. V\Tien there are many connected terms, it is better to change the possessive 
sign of one of them: thus, instead of, 'The severity of the sufferings of the son of the 
king; say, ' The severity of the suiierings of the king's son.' Instead of, My niece's 
husband's brother's wife; say, The wife of the brother of my niece's husband. 

Exercise 86. 

(N. 32.) She greatly admired the gardener's, as she called him, excellent 
understanding. She spoke of her teacher's, which she still remembered, 
rigid rules. 

(N. 33.) ?>luch depends on this rule being observed. At me coming 
in, he said, etc. I felt my strength's declining rapidly. I was sensible 

32. What may be allowed to come between the possessive and the name of the ob- 
ject possessed? — Example. 33. Does the possessive case ever point out a participial 
phrase? — Example. — Why not say, I am aware of him having written- that letter? — 
How may the objective case suggest the idea of possession? — Example. 34. What is 
said of the possessive case having 0/ before it, and no objective after it? — Example. 
8. When there are many connected terms, what is the best usage?. — Examples. — Ex- 
ercise 86. 



SYNTAX. 157 

of my strength declining rapidly. I am astonished at him making so 
bold an effort. 

(N. 34.) That is the residence of Col. Burton's. There is the tomb of 
Washington's. He is the uncle of young George's. That is the birth- 
place of Robert Burns's. 

ADJECTIVES. 
KuLE 16. Adjectives point out and qualify substantives. 
Note 35. Adjectives of a numeral form must agree in number with 
their substantives: as, This sort. — Not, These sort. 

Obs. Some nouns of the singular form are used technically as plural nouns: as, A 
fleet of fDrty sail. Two brace ortv/o pair of ducks. Ten yoke of oxen. A hundred 
head of cattle. 

Note 36. The pronoun them should not be used as an adjective: thus, 
instead of them boolis; say, those hooks. 

Note 37. Two adjectives are sometimes used as one compound; the 
former modifying the sense of the latter: as, Pale blue linen. Deep sea- 
green sash.* 

Rem. 9. Wlien two limiting adjectives are used as one compound, or one collective 
number, the latter agrees in number with the substantive: as, Many a day. Every 
hundred years. 

Obs. Two adjectives connected by and, usually give the noun the plural form: as, 
the first and second wards, f 

Rem. 10. This here and that there are vulgarisms which should be avoided: thus, in- ' 
stead of. This here is letter than that there; say. This is better than that. 

Note 38. When that and this are used in the sense of former and lat- 
ter, this refers to the latter, or last thing mentioned, and that, to the for- 
mer, or first thing mentioned: as. Wealth and poverty are both tempta- 
tions: that (wealth) tends to excite pride; this, (poverty,) discontent. 

Note 39. The adjectives either and neither refer to one of two things or 
of two classes, but any and no7ie to more than two: as, I have not seen 

* " In the expression, 'A light bluish-green tint,' bluish modifies green, and light 
modifies the phrase bluish-green; while the three words light bluish green, taken to- 
gether, qualify tint." — Wells. 

t" We may say with equal propriety 'the fourteenth and the fifteenth century,' or 
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.' " — Id. WTien the article is repeated the noun 
commonly has the singular form: as, "The first and the second ward." 

[Lesson 83.] Repeat Rule 16. 35. AVhat is said of adjectives of a numeral form? 
— Example. — Mention some nouns of the singular form that may be used technically 
in the plural, ",6. Vvhat is said of the pronoun them? — Example. 37. How are two 
adjectives together, sometimes used? — Examples. 9. When two limiting adjectives 
are used as one compound, which agrees in number with the substantivel — Examples. 
10. What is said of this here and that there? — Example. 38. What is said of the use 
of that and this, in the sense oi former and latter? — Example. 39. To what do the 
u 'je^'tive.? cither and neither refevl—Jlni/ and no7ie! — Give example*. 



158 ' ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

either of the two; or, any of the three: or, I have seen neither of the 
twoj or none of the three. 

Note 40. A is used before words beginning with a consonant sound, 
and an before words beginning with a vowel sound: as, A heart, an 
honor, an unction, a union, — Not, An union; for although t^wion begins 
with a vowel, yet it has a consonant sound, as if written, yonnion. 

Obs. Some writers use an before a sonnded h when the accent is on the second sylla- 
ble: as, An historical account: An hereditai-T/ go\einment. 

Rem. 11. When two connected terms refer to the same thing, the article a is com- 
monly omitted before the last: as, lie is abetter collector than lawyer. But when the 
terms refer to different things, the article is repeated: as. He is a better collector than 
a lawyer. 

Rem. 12. JI is sometimes placed before the adjectives few and Zz^iZe to express a posi- 
tive or to make the most of a thing: as, She has a few friends and a little comfort. 
But to express a negative, or to make the least of a thing, the article is omitted: as, 
She has few friends and little comfort. 

Note 41. When the or any other definitive, limits the transitive parti- 
ciple as a noun, of is used to govern the following noun: as, By the 
bleeding of his feet, we detected liim. " This splitting of particles is 

useless." 

Rem. 13. The definitive and preposition may generally both be omitted; bui the one 
should not be used without the other: as, By bleeding his feet, we cured him. 

Obs. In the last example, we would not express the idea so well if we were to make 
bleeding a noun by placing the before it. 

E X E R CI S E 8 7. 

(N. 35.) "These kind of knaves I know." Hand me that tongs. 
We travelled thirty mile to-day. The road is ten furlong in length, and 
the mud two foot deep. He will pronounce this encomia with emphasis. 
That phenomena appear in the heavens. I have not seen it for twenty 
year. 

(N. 36.) Them Indians came to St. Louis. What could he have 
meant by them insinuations? 

(Rem. 10.) This here farm is larger than that there. 
" Here lies William Curtis, late our Lord Mayor, 
Who has left this here world, and has gone to that there." 

40. How are a and an used"? — Examples. — Why not say an union? — Is an ever usl 
before a sounded k? — Examples. 11. What is said of the article a in connection with^ 
two connected term?? 12. What is said of a when placed before few and little?- 
^}4}. 41. When a participle is limited as a noun, what is used to govern the follow 
ing noun? — Examples. 13. Give an example in which the article and preposition are 
both omitted. Should the one be used without the other? — What does the participle 
become when t?ic or any oth^r limiting adjective is placed before it? — Exercise 87. 



t 



SYNTAX. 159 

(N. 38.) Hope is as strong an incentive to action, as fear: this is the 
anticipation of good, that, of evil. Religion raises men above themselves; 
irreligion sinks them beneath the brutes: that binds them down to a poor, 
pitiable speck of perishable earth; this opens for them a prospect to the 
skies. 

(N. 39.) Either of my numerous friends will answer for me: neither 
of them will refuse me. To lose any of his eyes, would be a great mis- 
fortune. None of the two can attend. I hope the poor man will lose 
none of his feet. 

(N. 40.) A elephant grows larger than a eagle. A Irishman was 
once frightened by a owl in an University. A honest man is the noblest 
w^ork of creation. He has pronounced an eulogy upon many an one. 
Many an heart has been crushed by a unfortunate step in a evil hour. 

(Rem. 13.) In keeping of his commands there is great reward. For- 
sake not assembling of yourselves together. Some find great difficulty 
in the remembering Greek names. " The poor author is damned in the 
taking a pinch of snufF." — Goldsmith. 



Note 42. An adjective should be attached to the noun which it pro- 
perly describes. The following examples suggest different ideas : 

A new barrel of cider, and, a barrel of new cider. 
A small lot of cattle, and, a lot of small cattle. 
Black ladies' hose, and, ladies' black hose. 

Note 43. When objects of the same class are compared, other follows 
the comparative degree to distinguish a separate division : as, Eve was 
fairer than all other women. — Not, Eve was fairer than all women; be- 
cause she was a woman, and could not be fairer than herself. And, also, 

For the same class or division, the superlative is used without other: 
as. Eve was the fairest of all women. — Not, the fairest of all other wo- 
men; because other women denote a separate division of the class. 

Note 44. An adjective is sometimes used to qualify a substantive 
phrase : as, To insult the afflicted, is impious. 

[ Lesson 84.] 42. To which, of several nouns, should the adjective be attached? — 
Give examples of the same adjective expressing different ideas. 43. In comparing ob- 
jects of the same class, what word follows the comparative degree to distinguish a 
separate division? — Example. — Does other follow the superlative? — Example. — Why 
not say, Eve was fairer than all women ? — Why not say, She was Ihe fairest of all 
other women ? 44. Give an example of an adjective qualifying a substantive phrase. 

14 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note 45. When an adjective forms a part of a substantive phrase, it is 
usually absolute or indefinite in its application : as, To be good^ is to be 
happy 

Note 46. Some adjectives seem to qualify both the noun and the verb, 
and they may properly be called Adverbial adjectives: as, " Heaven opened 
wide her ever-during gates." 

Rem. 14. Adjectives usually follow those verbs that signify to be or to become: as, 
She lives free from care : Magnesia feels smooth: Clay burns white. — Not, freely^ 
smoothly, whitely. 

EXERCISE 88. 

(N. 42.) He bought a new pair of shoes and a sweet barrel of cider. 
A good tract of land and an elegant piece of furniture. Red boys' caps 
and green ladies' bonnets. A ripe basket of fruit and a small span of 
horses. 

(N. 43.) Sampson was stronger than any man. Solomon was the 
wisest of all other men. Man is wisest of the brute creation. Eve was 
the fairest of all her daughters. The President occupies a higher station 
than any officer in the government. Delaware is smaller than any of the 
States. " This noble nation hath, of all others, admitted fewer corrup- 
tions." The United States are more prosperous than all other kingdoms. 

(Rem. 14.) The grass looks greenly. The sun shines hotly. Apples 
taste sweetly. That little girl appears neatly. She looks pleasantly, and 
must feel happily. The old man lives freely from toil, and seems hum- 
bly, but he has grown feebly. 

AD VE RBS. 

PtULE 17. Adverbs qualify Verbs, Adjectives, and other 
Adverbs. 

Note 47. Some adverbs of degrees (47.3) are occasionally used to 
modify the sense of substantives and prepositions : as, Christ only was 
entirely without sin. 

Note 48. Some adverbs, as yes, no, and amen, may be used indepen- 
dently : as, Do you understand this ? Yes. Are you dissatisfied? No. 

Note 49. Words of the adjective form are often improperly used as 
adverbs : thus, instead of. She sings sweet — say, She sings sweet\y. 

45. W^'hen is an adjective indefinite in its application ? — Examples. 46. WTien ad- 
jectives qualify both the noun and verb, what may they be called ? — Example. 14. 
What class of verbs do adjectives usually follow 7 — Examples. — Exercise 88. 4K&' 
Repeat Rule 17. 47. For what are some adverbs of degree occasionally used ? — Ex- 
amples. 48. How may yes, no, and amen, be used ? — Examples. 49. What are often 
improperly used as adverbs 1 — Example. 4K)' 



SYNTAX. 161 

Note 50. Double comparatives and superlatives should be avoided ; 
thus, instead of, More wiser, most wisest, — say. Wiser, wisest; or, More 
wise, most wise. 

Note 51. Two negatives should not be used to establish a negation: 
thus, instead of, I did not see nobody — say, I did not see anybody; or 
else, I saw nobody. 

EXERCISE 89. 

(N. 49.) He reads very good, but writes awkward. How fearful and 
wonderful are we made. He speaks fluent, and the people listen atten- 
tive. It is common reported that he was not received very cordial. The 
smoother the stream the deeper it flows. I can never think so very mean 
of hifn. He conducted himself conformable to the great example. *'Alas! 
they are miserable poor." 

(N. 50.) If students were to review more oftener, they would recollect 
their lessons more better. I more further state, that the witness stood 
more farther from the accused than I did. The witness was standing the 
most farthest of all, and I the most nearest. That was the most un- 
kindest cut of all. The lesser a man knows, the more greater is the 
vanity he possesses. 

(N. 51.) Some people never do nothing deserving praise. They can- 
not go nowhere without being censured. They do not respect no one. 
Nobody never invented nothing in no way to be compared to this. 



Note 52. An adverb should have that position in a sentence which 
will produce the most flowing and perspicuous style : thus, instead of, He 
needs never correction — say, He never needs correction. 

E,EM. 15. After a negative, so is usually preferred to as: as, "No book in the world 
deserves to be so unceasingly studied, and so profoundly meditated upon, as the 
Bible."— J. a. Adams. 

Rem. 16. JVo, when a contrast is intended, should not follow ichcther-or: thus, in- 
stead of, I do not know whether I can go or no — say, I do not know whether I can go 
or not. 

Rem. 17, J^'evcr U sometimes improperly used for eye?-; thus, instead of, '^Charming 
never so wisely" — say, "Charming ever so wisely." 

Rem. 18. Hoio should not be placed before that, or instead of it : thus, instead of, 
He said how that he was sick, and could not attend — say. He said that he was sick, &c. 

50. What of double comparatives and superlatives 1 — Examples. 51. What of two 
negatives 1 — Examples. — Exercise 89. 

[Lesson 85.] 52, What is said of the position of the adverb? — Example. 15. 
When is so usually preferred to as? — Example. 16. WTiat of no when a contrast is 
intended? — Example. 17. What of wet-^r.? — Example, 18. WhoX o^ hoic? — Example. 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rem. 19. WTiere is sometimes improperly used for icJiereLn, or inwhich: thus, instead 
of, We have a constitution wheTV our privileges are defined — say, In which our privi- 
leges, &c. 

EXERCISE 9 0. 

(N. 52.) You should be never too hasty. You should not rudely be- 
have. We are liable always to death. He speaks of his companion, whom 
he can never forget, daily. Truth fears examination never. Not only 
he found her busy, but pleased and happy even. 

(Rem. 15.) She was not as vain as her sister, nor was she as cruel. 
(Rem. 16.) I am not sure whether she teaches French or no. 
(Rem. 17.) They might be extirpated were they never so many. 

'< mount we ne'er so high, 

Our height is but the gibbet of our name." — Young. 

(Rem. 18.) The preacher remarked how that time is short. 
(Rem. 19.) I wrote a letter to my brother, where I directed him how 
to proceed. 

PREPOSITIONS 

EuLE 18. A Preposition connects its precedent with its 
object. 

Note 53. Prepositions are usually placed before their objects whom and 
which, but never before the relative that: as, To whom shall we go? For 
which shall we inquire? He is a man that all have confidence in. — Not, 
Whom shall we go to? Which shall we inquire for? He is a man in 
that all have confidence. 

Note 54. In the use of Prepositions, care must be taken to express 
relation agreeably to the usage and idiom of the language : as, Christians 
differ /rom the Jews in respect to Christ. — Not, Christians differ with the 
Jews, &c. 

Rem. 20. Between has respect to two things or classes; but among to more than two: 
as, We divide it between two, — among many. 

Note 55. The preposition and transitive verb aTe sometimes impro- 
perly used together to govern the same object : thus, instead of, I cannot 
allow of it — say, I cannot allow it. 

19. What of where?— Example.— Exercise 90. CK>- Repeat Rule 18. 53. How 
are prepositions placed in relation to the relative pronouns which they govern. — Exam- 
ples. 54. What care should be taken in the use of prepositions ? — Example. 20. To 
what do between and among have respect 1 — Examples. 55. Give an example in which 
the transitive verb and preposition are improperly used together with the same regimen. 



SYNTAX. 163 

Note 56. The preposition should not be placed so far from its prece- 
dent, or in such a situation, as to obscure the sense : thus, instead of, I 
was examined by Dr. Breckinridge, who once resided in Baltimore, in the 
church — say, I was examined in the church by Dr. Breckinridge, who 
once resided in Baltimore. 

EXERCISE 91. 

(N. 53.) Thou art the man whom I called on. He is the teacher whom 
1 received instruction from. These are the principles which he has long 
contended for. These are the rules which I have meditated upon day and 
night. This is the place for that you have been looking. 

(N. 54.) My books are up stairs. Go above stairs and get them. 
Many have died with fever, and some have fallen of the sword. He re- 
sides into Boston, but he travels from one country in another. Some 
were disappointed a few years ago in the destruction of the world by fire. 
They were mistaken of their calculation. It was not agreeable with pro- 
phesy, nor conformable with the Divine arrangement. We cannot always 
confide on learned men. It is not in unison to our sentiments. Are you 
conversant with political economy ? I know you are conversant in poli- 
ticians. I have no prejudice to them, for many of them would die mar- 
tyrs to the good of their country. 

(Rem. 20.) There should be no disagreement between the states of 
this union. Did not pure love exist among the first pair? 

(N. 55.) I heard them discussing of that subject. The speaker pre- 
mised with three circumstances. We delight to contemplate on the won- 
ders of creation. 

(N. 56.) I waited, having been discharged in Mexico, fora certificate, 
in New Orleans. 

OBJECTS OF PREPOSITIONS. 

Rule 19. When a substantive is the object of a preposition 
it is in the objective case. 

Note 57. A sentence or phrase is often used as the logical object of a 
preposition: as, "Much will depend on who the commissioners are." 

" This animal's below committing treason." 

56. What is said of the position of the preposition in relation to its precedent? — Ex* 
ample. Exercise 91. 

[Lesson 86.] Repeat Rule 19. 57. How is a sentence or phrase often used? — Ex- 
amples. 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note 58. Adverbs of time and place are often used as the objects of 
prepositions: but then they are not in the objective case, like substan- 
tives: as, He came from there yesterday, and has remained here until 
now. 

EXERCISE 92. 

(R. 19.) To who shall we go? Call upon he that is mighty. We, 
like they, have gone astray. Be the glory not unto we, but unto thou, 
I have long been separated from ye. He has made arrangement for she 
and I to go with him. Between he and I there is perfect friendship. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

Rule 20. Conjunctions usually connect sentences and phrases. 

Note 59. Certain conjunctions, adjectives, and adverbs, require appro- 
priate conjunctions to correspond with them, (507): as. Though he is 
rich, yet he is not proud. — Not, though he is rich, still he is not proud. 

Rem. 21. But is sometimes improperly placed before tchat instead of that: thus, in- 
stead of, I do not know but ivliat he is an honest man — say, I do not know but that he 
is, etc. The meaning is; I do not know that he is an honest man, but he may be so. 

Rem. 22. Lest and but are somethiiies improperly used instead of that: thus, instead 
of, I often fear lest my friend will become intemperate — It cannot be denied hut* he is 
so inclined — say, I often fear that — it cannot be denied that, etc. 

EXERCISE 93. 

(N. 59.) Though he slay me then will I trust in him. Both poverty 
or riches are temptations. It may be that he will not either come him- 
self, nor send a messenger — that he will do neither the one or the other. 
Whether the child obeys his parents and disobeys them, he is sure to have 
their love. Whether he does so, I cannot tell. The entertainment was 
not such to afford us much comfort. The house was so small to be in- 
sufficient to contain us. She is as amiable as well as her sister, but not 
80 much admired. As two are to four, then are six to twelve. Inquire 
if the mail has arrived or not. 

'* To be resolved 
If Brutus so unkindly knock'd or no." 

* Afterwords implying doubt or fear, hut is sometimes improperly used before that: 
as, I doubt not but that he is sincere, — (Expunge hut.^ 



58. How are adverbs of time and place often used? — Are they then in the objective 
case like substantives? — Examples. Exercise 92. Repeat Rule 20. 59. What do 
certain conjunctions, adjectives, and adverbs require? — Example. 21. Give an ex- 
ample in which but is improperly prefixed to what instead of that. Correct the exam- 
ple. 22. Give examples in which lest and hut are imiproperly used instead of that. — 
Correct the examples. Exercise 93. ^K^- 



SYNTAX. 165 

(REia. 21.) I do not know but what you are right. We are not sure 
but what the fault is ours. 

(Rem. 22.) She feared lest some accident had befallen her husband. 
It cannot be denied but some of us are poor. 



Rule 21. And, or, and 7ior, connect words of the same case 
or dependence. 

Note 60. When and, or, and nor, connect words, the last word com- 
monly has understood the same prefixes as the first, unless differently ex- 
pressed: as. Good boys and (good) girls. An orange or (an) apple. I 
have written and (have) spoken. 

Note 61. And, or, and nor, connect verbs of the same mood, and usu- 
ally of the same tense: as, You must take the jewel and keep it for my 
sake. — Not, You must take the jewel and to keep it; for must take and to 
keep are of different moods. 

Rem. 23. And, or, and nor, do not connect the imperfect participle with the personal 
verb: thus, instead of, The smith confines the iron with one hand and hammering it 
with the other — say, and hammers it v^^ith the other. 

exercise94. 

(R. 21.) He and me are partners. He and her were disappointed. 
We or them will continue. Neither he nor her is concerned. Did you 
not see them and I together? You could not understand she and me. 
She has grown tall and handsomely. He walks neither nimbly nor 
graceful. 

(N. 60.) That house and gardens. An orchard and meadow. A 
beautiful field and trees. Some burning mountain and river. She had 
come and went. I was reproved by him, and drove to my seat. "About 
six hundred Indians of all ages and sexes had perished." 

(N. 61.) You should get knowledge, or at least to strive for it. Fear 
God and must keep his commandments. Remember the Sabbath day and 
to keep it holy. 

(Rem. 23.) I heard her sing and playing delightfully. 



Repeat Rule 21. 60. When and, or, and noi', connect words, what of the prefixes to 
those words? — Examples. 61. What similarity in verbs connected by aiid, or, andnor? 
Example.— Why not say, You must take the jewel and to keep it? 23. Do a/n,d, or, and 
nar, connect the imperfect participle with the personal verb? — Example. — Exercise 94. 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rule 22. Than and as connect substantives of the same 
case, but any words or pbrases so connected, usually have a 
different dependence. 

Note 62. Than follows rather ^ else, other, and the comparatives gen- 
erally, to introduce the latter term of comparison: as, <*I would rather be 
right than be president." It was no one else than he. This is no other 
than the gate of paradise. 

Note 63. Than sometimes governs the objective whom; as, It was Nero, 
than whom a greater tyrant never reigned. 

Obs. As is sometimes used to connect adjectives and participles with the substan- 
tives to which they belong: as, They are regarded as useless. "Their presence was 
of great moment, as giving consideration to the enterprise." 

EXERCI SE 95 . 

(R. 22.) He is older than me. You can play as well as me, but not 
so well as him or her. He is a pupil as well as her, and I lecture him as 
often as she. He appears to esteem no one more than thou. 
*'None felt so well, the tyrant knew; 
As her he loved, and him he slew." 

(N. 62.) I would rather hear as speak. I have heard of nothing else 
beside what you told me. It was no other man but my father. We 
have no other fortune except this. He no sooner retires but his heart 
burns with devotion. He was more beloved but not so much admired as 
Cynthio. 

VEEBS AND SUBSTANTIVES — Agreement. 

Rule 23. When a collective noun is taken as one body and 
used as an individual thing of the singular neuter, any verb or 
substantive that agrees with it is singular : as, the assembly 
was remarkable for its size. — But, 

When reference is made to the members of the collective 
noun, any verb or substantive that agrees with it is plural ; 
as. The assembly tvere leaving for their homes. 

Repeat Rule 22. 62. In introducing the latter term of comparison, what does than 
follow? — Examples. 63. What objective does than sometimes govern?— Example.— 
How is as sometimes used? — Exercise 95. 

[Lesson 87.] Repeat Rule 23. 



SYNTAX. 167 

Obs. When we say the assembly was large, we do not mean that the members com< 
posing the assembly were large; bnt large describes the assembly as a single congre- 
gation. 

Rem. 24. When the collective noun is spoken of as one in unity of being or action 
it is represented as the singular neuter: but, when we refer to the members with their 
difierenoe of sentiment or action, the noun is used as though it had a plural form: as, 
(^singular'), Tlie committee occupies the room; {plural)^ The committee were of dif- 
ferent sentiments. 

Note 64. A nonii of the plural form is sometimes used fora single col- 
leclivc number, and the verb is made to agree with it in the singular: as, 
A hundred dollars was agreed upon; i. e., the price^ a hundred dollars. 
Twice two is four; i. e., the number twice two. 

EXERCISE 96. 

(R. 23.) Congress are now in session. The Senate are composed of 
two members from each state. The crowd were so great that we could 
scarcely get through them. The assembly were dismissed in conse- 
quence of their unconstitutionality. When tlie nation complain, the 
rulers should listen to their voice. The fleet are sailing with their usual 
velocity. The committee disagrees in its sentiments. The jury is all 
bonnds by its oath. The great multitude of people pursues pleasure as 
its chief good. In France the peasantry goes barefoot, while the middle 
sort wears its wooden shoes. 

(N. 64.) Twenty-five cents are cheap for that article. Two from 
four leave two. 



EuLE 24. When several nominatives are connected by and, 
any verb or substantive that agrees with them is plural : as, 
Washington and Franklin were henefactors of their country. 

Note j65. Wlien several singular nominatives, standing for the same 
individual, are connected by and^ any verb or substantive that agrees 
with them is singular: as, That great philosopher and statesman has re- 
signed his seat. — Not, hax)e resigned their seat; for these names are used 
for the same individual. 



When we say, the assembly was large, do we allnde to different individuals or to 
the congregation as a single body? 24. When is the collective noun represented as the 
singular neuter? — "When as the plural?— Give examples of both numbers. 64. When 
a noun of the plural form is used for a single collective number, what number has the 
verb? — Exam-ples. — Exercise 9o. <>^>. Repeat Rule 24. — Example. 65. When sin- 
gular nominatives connected by and stand for the same individual, what number has 
the verb and substantive that agrees with them? — Why not say that great philosopher 
and statesman have resigned their seat? 

15 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note 66. V/hen several singular nominatives, preceded by each^ every, 
or no, are connected by and, any verb or substantive tiiat agrees with 
them, is siiigular: as. Each teacher and every pupil has his part to per- 
form. No hour of the morning and no part of the evening is unem- 
ployed. 

Note 67. When nominatives of different persons are connected by 
and, the representative pronoun agrees witii the first person in preference 
to the second, or with the second in preference to the third: as, You and 
I have our misfortunes. You and he have your misfortunes. 

Note 68. When a verb separates its nominatives it must agree with the 
one that precedes it, being understood to the rest: as, 

■■' Forth in the pleasing spring 
Thy beauty walks, thy tenderness and love,*' 

Note 69. When the verb comes between a comprehensive plural nom- 
inative and a singular or distributive in apposition, the verb agrees with 
the plural while the pronoun agrees with the singular: as, " They reap 
vanity, every one with his neighbor." 

Rem. 25. When nominatives are emphatically or negatively distinguished, they pro- 
perly belong to different clauses: as, John, and James also, attends to his studies. 
"Diligent industry, and not mean savings, produces honorable competence;" i.e., 
Diligent industry produces honorable competence, and mean savings do not, 

EXER.CISE97. 

(R. 24.) Socrates and Plato was the wisest of his age. Intempe- 
rance, profanity, and falsehood, is forbidden because it is sinful. Virtue 
and vice is opposite in its tendency. The planetary system, boundless 
space, and the immense ocean, affects the mind v/ith sensations of aston- 
ishment. Wisdom, virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrity. 
To be temperate in eating and drinking, to use exercise in the open air, 
and to preserve the mind free from tumultuous emotions, is the'best pre- 
servatives of health. 

(N. 65.) The God and Father of us ail, are merciful to all their crea- 
tures. Why are dust and ashes proud? 

66. When the nominatives connected by and, are preceded by each, every, or no, 
what number have the verb or substantive that agrees with them? — Examples. 67. 
What is said of nominatives of different persons connected by on^?— Examples. 68. 
What is said of a verb that separates its nominatives?— Example. 69. What is said 
of a verb that comes between a comprehensive plural nominative and a distributive in 
apposition?— Example. 25. What is said of nominatives emphatically, or negatively 
distinguished? — Examples, 

[ Lesson 88. 3 Exercisa 97. 



SYNTAX. 169 

(N. 66.) Every man and every horse were drowned. Each master 
and each servant have their share of toil. Every member of the body, 
every bone, every joint, and every muscle, have a peculiar office assigned 
to them. 

No part of their substance, and no one of their properties, are the same. 

(N. 67.) You and I differ in your judgment on this subject. You 
and they agree in their opinion. 

(N. 68.) The quiver rattle against him, the glittering spear and the 
shield. 

(N. 69.) *' Christian and Moor in death promiscuous lay, 
Each where they fell." — Southey. 

(Rem. 25.) The woman, and not the men, were leaving their seat. 



Rule 25. When singular nominatives are connected by or 
or nor, any verb or substantive that agrees with them is singu- 
lar : as, Neither Claudius nor Nero ivas a benefactor of his 
country. 

Note 70. When a singular and a plural nominative are connected by 
or or nor, the verb and substantive usually agree with the plural in pre- 
ference to the singular: as, Neither the pastor nor the people were cen- 
sured for their opinions. 

Note 71. When the latter of two nominatives connected, is paren- 
thetical, the verb and substantive agree with the former: as. One man (or 
fifty) is not able of himself to quell this mob. 

exercise9 8. 

(R. 25.) John or James have left their books. Neither the one nor 
the other do their duty. Either James or William have neglected what 
was told them. There are in many minds neither knowledge nor under- 
standing. A man may see a metaphor or an allegory in a picture, as 
well as read them in a book. 

(N. 70.) Either he or they has violated his contract. 

(N. 71.) One witness (or several) are insufficient. 



Repeat Rule 25.— Examples. 70. W^hat is said of a singular and a plural nomina- 
tive connected by or or 7ior.?— Example. 71. What if the latter of two substantives 
is parenthetical?— Example.— Exercise 98. < K> 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EuLE 26, When nominatives in diflferent persons are con- 
nected by or or nor, the verb commonly agrees with that which 
next precedes it, being understood to the rest in the person 
and number required : as, He or you are in fault. You or he 
is in fault. 

Obs. It is the opinion of Dr. Bullions that sometimes when the verb affirms and 
more particularly when it denies of its different nominatives (connected by or or nor) 
the verb may be plural though a singular nominative may next precede it: as, 
"Neither you nor I are in fault." — Bullions. 

Note 72. V/hen nominatives in different persons, connected by or or 
nor, are to be represented by a pronoun, the verb and pronoun should 
both be plural, or else the different clauses should be fully expressed: as, 
Neither you nor I were correct in our calculation; or, Neither were you 
correct in your calculation nor was I correct in mine. 

Rule 27. Interjections have no grammatical connection with 
other words : as, Alas ! I am forsaken. 

Note 73. The interjection may be followed by the objective case of 
the first person, and by the nominative of the second and third: as, 
'* Ah me, miserable!" 
" thou, the nymph with placid eye!" 
*'0 the times! O the seasons!'' 

General Remarks. 

Rem. 26. When two terms connected refer jointly to a third, they must be adapted 
to it and to each other: as, It always has been laudable and it always will be. — Not, 
It always has and it always will be laudable; for has is not adapted to be. 

Rem. 27. An omission of words is allowable when the sense is not weakened 
thereby: as. All the boys and girls recited. — Not, All the boys and all the girls re- 
cited. 

Obs. In vei-y emphatic sentences, the ellipsis is scarcely admissible: as, ''Christ 
the power of God, and the wisdom of God." — Not, Christ the power and wisdom of 
God. 

Rem. 28. When an omission would obscure the sense of the sentence, wealcen its 
force, or produce an impropriety, it is not allowable: thus, instead of, I gladly shunned 
who gladly fled from me; say, I gladly shunned him who, etc. 

Repeat Rule 26 — Examples. 72. When nominatives in different persons, connected 
by or or nor, are to be represented by a pronoun, what should be the number of the 
verb and pronoun? — Examples. — Repeat Rule 27. 73. What case of the first person 
may follow interjections? 26. What is said of two connected terms that refer jointly 
to a third? — Example. — Wliy not say, It always has and it always will be? 27. When 
is an omission of words allowable? — Example. 28. When is an omission of words 
not allowable? — Example. 



SYNTAX. 171 

EXERCISE 99. 

(R. 26.) Either he or I is to go. I or thou am in fault. 

(N. 72.) Either you or I am mistaken in my calculation. 

(Rem. 26.) The first proposal was essentially different and inferior to 

the second. He is older, but not so intelligent as his brother. 
(Rem. 27.) I am fond of reading, and I am fond of writing. I would 

write if I could write. 
(Rem. 28.) We have a healthy climate and soil. You have a desk and 

iron chest. 

Recapitulatory Ex a mp les . 

EXERCISE 100. 

(R. 1.) We, the Executive of the United States, am sworn to see that 

the laws be faithfully executed. 
(R. 2.) Sir, if thou have borne him hence, tell me where thou hast laid 

him. 
(R. 3.) There remains two points to be settled. 
(R. 4.) Was you not present when the witnesses was sworn? 
(R. 5.) I have not been informed whether he were there or not. 
(R. 5. Latter clause.) If he was here now, I should be content. 
(N. 1.) I shall go to-morrow unless it rains. 
(N. 2.) Having chose a speaker, the business was began. 
(N. 3.) You done exactly right in having that letter wrote. 
(N. 4.) I remember him from my childhood. 
(N. 5.) It has been severely cold several days ago. 
(N. 6.) As the demand increases the price raises. 
(N. 7.) The doctor said in his lecture, that fever always produced thirst. 
(N. 8.) We wish to very soon complete the map. 
(N. 9.) I heard the lady to play her favorite piece. 
(N. 10.) I intended to have written, but was disappointed. 
(R. 6.) Him who created us should be obeyed. 
(N. 13.) Dear sir, am sorry to inform you that your son's health is no 

better. 
(R. 7.) Who do you wish to see? 
(R. 9.) Art thou him that wast to come? 

Exercise 99. Exercise 100. 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(R. 11.) I heard Mr. Darwin, he who preached in our church. 

(R. 12.) Him being chosen, the people submitted. 

(ReiM. 4.) Your neighbor Jones, he went with me. 

(R. 13.) Who came with you? Him and her. 

(R. 14.) Each one should act for themselves. 

(N. 20.) The tiger is a beast of prey who destroys without pity. 

(N. 21.) Solomon was the wisest king who ever reigned in Israel. 

(N. 22.) I had a neighbor accompanied me. 

(N. 23.) They are worse than brutes that devour their offspring. 

(N. 24.) People that talk much, and who think little, seldom fail to 

disgust. 
(N. 27.) Thy ancestors virtues are not thine. 
(N. 28.) Relieve my sufferings for goodness's sake. 
(N. 29.) That bouse is Bradley's, the Clerk's of the Court. 
(N. 30.) George's and Henry's mother is William's aunt. 
(N. 31.) Luther and Charles's pursuits were very different. 
(N. 32.) She remembers her mother's, whom she can never forget, 

last words. 
(N. 33.) I was surprised at him tr54ng to injure his friend. 
(N. 34.) He arrived at the mansion of his father's. 
(N. 35.) That boat carries three hundred ton. 
(N. 36.) Let me have them instruments. 
(Rem. 10.) This here is mine, and that there is yours. 
(N. 38.) Peace and war are opposites; this indicates friendship, that, 

strife. 
(N. 39.) None of my parents, and neither of my ancestors., would 

sanction it. 
(N. 40.) A insane person should not be permitted to carry an knife 
CN. 41.) The worshiping idols is sinful. 
(Rem. 13.) The teacher was engaged in making of pens. 
(N. 42.) He bought a small yoke of oxen and a fine span of horses. 
(N. 43.) Cicero was more eloquent than any Roman. Demosthenes 

was the most eloquent of all the other Grecian orators. 
(Rem. 14.) She has become intelligently and very handsomely. 
(N. 49.) She walks nimble and graceful. 



SYNTAX. 173 

(N. 50.) After the most strictest sect of our religion I lived a 

Pharisee. 
(N. 51.) Nothing: never delighted me so much. 
(N. 52.) We diligently should search the Scriptures. 
(Rem. 15.) He is not as much knave as fool. 
(Rem. 16.) I cannot tell whether I am understood or no. 
(Rem. 17.) He would not do wrong, though solicited never so much. 
(Rem. 18.) He said how that vice always produces misery. 
(Rem. 19.) The duties we ov/e to God are defined in the Bible, where 

are written all moral obligations. 
(N. 53 ) Whom did you receive that information from? 
(N. 54.) We may profit from a m.an's advice when we can confide 

on him. 
(Rem. 20.) The disaffection is not among the two officers, but between 

the soldiers. 
(N. 55.) We know there is such a thing as a telegraph, for we have 

seen of it. 
(N. 56.) He called aloud, as a lion roars in the wilderness, for his 

dinner. 
(R. 19.) Unto thou, O Lord, do we approach. 
(N. 59.) Though he is rich, so is he not vain. 
(Rem. 21.) I did not know but what he was really my friend. 
(Rem. 22.) I am apprehensive lest I shall be disappointed. 
(R. 21.) Neither him nor I could understand it. 
(N. 60.) The child had gone and fell into the water. 
(N. 61.) Cleanse the house and to prepare it for the wedding guest 
(Rem. 23.) Sweep the floor or washing it with water. 
(R. 22.) Amanda appears to a better advantage than him. 
(N. 62.) Who would not rather labor in youth as beg in old age1 
(R. 23.) The congregation is very much interested in its speaker. 
(R. 24.) The dog and the cat is various in its species. 
(N. 65.) That wise philosopher and statesman, were Franklin of 

Philadelphia. 
(N. 66.) Every day in the year, and every hour in the day, leave the 

print of their tooth on nature's works. 
(N. 67.) Both you and I shall be rewarded according to your work<§. 
(N. 68.) All are in mourning; the father weep and hi§ family. 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

(N. 69.) x\ll act a part, each in tlieir own sphere. 
(Rem. 25.) The moon, and not the stars, reflect the light of the sun. 
(R. 25.) Neither Adams nor his friend were to be pardoned. 
(N. 70.) Either the old man or his sons has done me this injury. 
(N. 71.) One fair promise (or many) are easily broken. 
(R. 26.) He or I is to write next week. 
(N. 72.) Neither he nor I am to be asked for my opinion. 
(Rem. 26.) I have made several alterations and additions to this work. 
(Rem. 27.) The extreme coldness of the evening, and the extreme cold- 
ness of the morning, prevented us. 
(Rem. 28.) This is a short example and end of the exercise. 

False ^y^h ax.— Promiscuously Arranged. 

exercise 101. 

Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. That farm has 
been cultivated remarkable well. Him and his son live together. They 
have sent for him and I. Christianity claims an heavenly origin. We 
have rode six mile an hour. Was you in the capitol yesterday? I wish 
he was here now. Him and me have entered into partnership. It was 
no sooner planned as executed. My teacher thought it was me. They 
requested it to be give in writing. Girls are easier governed than boys. 
A ladys manners shape her fortune. I have seen some of these sort. I 
seen the pitcher broke at the cistern. Without attention we can never 
do nothing well. She acts, at all times, prudent and discreet. The works 
are Cicero, the most eloquent of men's. The frequent commission of 
sin harden men in it. Such conduct is a disgrace of their profession. 
Let he and I accompany you. David, the son of Jesse, was the youngest 
of his brothers. Your son, he assisted me. Hannibal was one of the 
greatest generals w^hom the w^orld ever saw. Every leaf, every twig, and 
every drop of water, teem with living things. Each performs their part 
very well. Thou who wast present, shall certainly be summoned. Let 
there be no dispute betv»^een you and I. If he remains a few days longer, 
what will be the consequence? Who produced that impression? Him 
that spoke first. They which came to scoff, remained to pray. If one 
take the greater, the other must take the lesser. The mechanic which 
made the cart, and the beast w^ho draws it, are both mortal. Them hav- 
ing agreed, the verdict was rendered. That is our Senator, him that was 



SYNTAX. 175 

elected last August. He endeavors to, at all times, discharge his duties 
faithfully. Laws may, and frequently are made against drunkenness. 
We have been in Washington last winter. We heard the speaker to de- 
liver his inaugural address. That atheist boldly affirmed that there was 
no God. He died for thirst, because there was no more to drink. Ho 
said how time and tide wait for no man. Is not Mount Blanc the higher 
mountain in Europe? A few pupils older than me excited my emulation. 
The first was more inferior, the second was most superior. The Gazette, 
where that letter was published, has been destroyed. The two should be 
never separated. I sav/ a dozen men, but I knew neither of them. Alex- 
ander was more ambitious than any man. You heard the minister; how 
were you pleased with him preaching? I was pleased with that there 
discourse. The Earth and Jupiter's diameters are not equal. Is there 
any wood to make a fire on the steps? I expected to have spoken, but 
was disappointed. That farm is to sell by public auction. It is the duke's, 
as they call him, best plantation. Among every class of people, self- 
interest prevails. 

"' how glad v/ould lay me down, 

As in my mother's lap." 
You should not lay late in the morning, but you should raise early. Nei- 
ther of them are remarkable for precision. Let neither partiality or pre- 
judice appear. His poems of all his other works are the most popular. 
I remain awhile at Richardson's the druggist's. A brute or a man are 
another thing when they are alive, from what they are when dead. This 
was a tax upon himself for the not executing the laws. I admire thee 
for your candor. Professing regard and to act differently, marks a base 
mind. We were apprehensive lest some accident had happened. Quag- 
mires have smooth surfaces commonly. I am not sure but what both 
were in fault. No food and no drink were taken for several days. He 
or 1 is the one. She must be very amiably, for she never grows impa- 
tiently. There is more demagogues than one. We are not apt to trust 
him whom we believe is dishonest. The convention was debating when 
we left. 

"Nor death, nor life delight us." 
The territory which we gained, it cost us much blood and treasure. This 
palace had been the grand Sultan's Mahomet's. O that I was a better 
man! 



276 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

F I G U R E S F S Y N T A X . 

533. Figures of Syntax are departures from the regular 
construction of words. 

Figures. 
Ellipsis, . Eiiallage, 

Pleonasm, Hyperbaton. 

Syllepsis, 

534. Ellipsis is the omission of such words as are necessary in con- 
Btruction; but being clearly understood, they are not expressed : as, 

"Lions the wolves, and wolves the kids pursue." 
" Day chases night, and night (chases) the day, 

But no relief to me (they) convey." 
*'The selfish heart deserves the pain (which) it feels." 
" O! (I wish) that we loved ourselves but half so well." 

535. Pleonasm is the introduction of superfluous words : as, " He that 
hath ears to hear, let him hear." "Verily, verily, I say unto you." "I 
know thee who thou art." 

536. Syllepsis is permitting words to agree that have no literal agree- 
ment : as, The word was made flesh and dwelt among us, and we beheld 
his glor}^ Their mouth is an open sepulchre. 

537. EnaMage is the use of one modification or part of speech for ano- 
ther : thus, the adjective form for the adverb, the preterit tense and perfect 
participle, the one for the other, etc.: as, 

" They fall successive, and successive rise.-' 

" A second deluge learning thus o'errun. 
And the monk finish'd what the Goth begun." 

538. Hyperhaton is the transposition of words : as, " Home he had 
not." "Whom therefore ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you." 

Obs. These figures of Syntax are indulged principally by the poetsj but for the sta- 
bility of the language, they should be used very sparingly in prose. 

POETIC LICENSE, 

539. *^* There is a striking difference between prose and poetic compositions. This 
distinction is owing, in no small degree, to those irregular forms, and to that diversified 
collocation of words which the poet has a license to indulge, but which might be inad- 
missible in prose. That which would be awkward, and even ungrammatical in prose, 
might be considered a pleasing and an elegant expression in poetry. It is well that 
the poet has a license to indulge a peculiar diction, for it is partly by this, that he 
"preserves the measure, moves the passions, and delights the imagination." 

533. What are figures of Syntax?— Name them. 534. Ellipsis ?— Examples. 535. 
Pleonasm? — Examples. 536. Syllepsis? — Examples. 537. Enallage ?---,Examples. 
538. Hyperbaton ? — Examples. 



SYNTAX. 177 

1. Words in poetry are often contracted : as, Dread, {dreadful,) drear, 
{dreary,) ope, o'er, e'er, morn, eve, etc. 

2. Words that do not properly belong to prose, are often used in po- 
etry: as, 

"0/£ in the stilltj night." 

" The most renovvn'd of worthy wights of pore.'' — Thomson. 

" Than those tha,t walk and wot not what they are." — Shak. 

3. Or-or, nor-nor, are often used as correlatives ; Or, in the sense of 
either; and nor, in that of neither. 

*' none commands to be, 

Or rich or learned." — Pollok. 
"Nor grief nor fear shall break my rest." 

4. By figure ellipsis, words are more frequently and variously omitted 
in poetry than in prose ; as, 

" Bliss is the same in subject as in king; 
In who obtain defense, and who defend." 

5. By figures pleonasm, the poets frequently introduce superfluous 
words: as, 

'^ The skipping king, he ambled np and down 
With shallow jesters" Shak. 

6. By figure syllepsis, they often ascribe qualities to things that do not 
properly belong to them : as, 

" The ploughman homeward plods his weary way." — Gray. 
"Imbitter'd more from peevish day to day," 

7. By figure enallage, they often use one modification or part of speech 
for another : as, 

" Then spoke abrupt; farewell to thee." 
" Sure, some disaster has befell." 
" Rapt into future times a bard begun : 
A virgin shall conceive — a virgin bare a son." 

8. By figure hyperbaton, they often place nominatives, adjectives and 
prepositions after the words to which they belong : as, 

" No hive hast thou of hoarded sweets." 
" Come nymph demure — with mantle blue." 
*' Where echo walks steep hills among." 

Mention the first case of poetic license — Examples. Second, — Examples. Third. — 
Examples. Fourth. — Examples. Fifth. — Examples. Sixth. — Examples. Seventh. — 
Examples. Eighth. — Examples. 



PART IV. 

PROSODY. 

Under this head it is proposed to give a concise view of 
Punctuation, Elocution, Versification, and Style and Figures 
of Rhetoric. 

PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation is the art of pointing off Written Composition, 
to denote pauses, and to distinguish the meaning. 

The signs or points used in punctuation, are denominated as follows : 

, Comma, — Dash, 

; Semicolon, ? Note of Interrogation, 

: Colon, ! Note of Admiration, 

. Period. () Parenthesis. 

The Comma denotes the shortest pause. 
The Semicolon, a pause double that of a comma. 
The Colon, a pause double that of a semicolon. 
The Period, the longest pause. 

Obs, The meaning may be totally perverted by an improper position of the points? 
as is shown by the punctuation of the follov/ing stanza: 

Every lady in the land 

Has twenty nails on each hand; 

Five-and-twenty on hands and feet: 

All this is true without deceit. 

To make sense, it should be punctuated as follows: 

Every lady in the land 
Has tv\'enty nails: on each hand 
Five; and twenty on hands and feet: 
All this is true without deceit. 

The man that was shaved, had read the barber's sign as follows: 

What do you think? Paddy O'Flapparday will shave a man for a penny, and give a 
drink of beer for nothing. 

But Paddy demanded more than a penny of his customer, and claimed to read his 
ovvTi sign, thus: 

What! do you think Paddy O'Flapparday will shave a man for a penny and give a 
drink of beer for nothing? 

(178) 



I 



I 



PROSODY. 179 

RULES FOR PUNCTUATION. 

C o m m a . 

Rule 1. A simple sentence, when short, does not usually 
admit the comma : as, " Every part of matter swarms with 
living creatures, 

HuLB 2. When a nominative, in a long simple sentence, is 
accompanied by an inseparable adjunct, a comma should come 
before the verb : as. The necessity of an early acquaintance 
with history, has always been acknowledged. 

Note 1. When a nominative plirase is lengthy, the comma should come 
before the verb: as, To be temperate in all our gratifications, is the best 
preservative of health. 

Note 2. Separable phrases and adjuncts should be set off by commas: 
as, I, with gratitude, remember his kindness: I remember, vi^ith grati- 
tude, his kindness: I remember his kindness, with gratitude: With gra- 
titude, I remember his kindness. 

Rule 3. Simple members of a compound sentence are gen- 
erally separated by commas : as, Virtue refines the affections, 
but vice debases them. Use, it is said, is second nature. He, 
who disregards the good opinion of the world, must be utterly 
abandoned : or, (by transposition), He must be utterly aban- 
doned, who disregards the good opinion of the world. 

Rem. 1. \'\Tien the relative cannot be transposed, the comma should not be inserted: 
as, You should improve the time which you now enjoy. 

Note 3. When a clause follows immediately after a verb, and is re- 
garded as the logical object of the verb, a comma should not separate 
them: as. We have reason to fear that some misfortune has happened to 
him. 

• Rem. 2. When the order is inverted the comma should come between the terms: as, 
That some misfortune has happened to him, we have reason to fear. 

Rule 4. Substantives and phrases employed independently 
are usually set off by commas : as. My son, give me thy heart. 
Thy daughters, Columbia, are fair. To confess the truth, I 
was in fault. 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rule 5. When an adjunct contains a noun in apposition to 
another noun, it is set off by commas : as, The butterfly, child 
of the summer, flutters in the sun. Paul, the apostle of the 
Gentiles, was eminent for his zeal and knowledge. 

Rem. 3. When the words in apposition are used merely as one compound noun, the 
comma may be omitted: as, Paul the Apostle was eminent. 

Rule 6. \Yhen the conjunction is omitted througb ellipsis, 
the comma should be inserted : as, 

" She thought the isle that gave her birth 
The sweetest, wildest land on earth." 

Note 4. When the last word after the ellipsis is nominative to a verb, 
a comma should come before the verb: as, "Reason, virtue, answer one 
great aim." 

Note 5. When the words in connection are more than two, it is cus- 
tomary to place the comma after each, whether the conjunction is ex- 
pressed or not: as, "Poetry, music, and painting, are fine arts." "She 
plans, provides, expatiates, triumphs, there." 

EuLE 7. When words are connected in pairs, the pairs only 
should be separated by commas : as, " There is a natural difi'er- 
ence between merit and demerit, virtue and vice, wisdom and 
folly. 

Note 6. Words of marked variety may be separated by the comma: as, 
Though deep, yet clear." 

Rule 8. Important words and phrases are separated from 
the context b}^ commas: as, "The robber asked me for my 
purse ; nay, he demanded it." In fact, my life was greatly endan- 
gered. At last, I escaped from him. 

Rem. 4. \^Tien such words and phrases are unimportant the comma is unnecessary: 
as, He was at last convinced of his error. 

Seinic olon . 

HuLE 9. The Semicolon usually comes between a distinct 
proposition and the inference or explanation that follows : as, 
" Economy is no disgrace ; for it is better to live on a little, 
than to outlive a great deal. 

Rule 10. The semicolon may separate short and complete 
sentences that have a very slight connection in sense ; as, *' The 



i 



PROSODY. 181 

epic poem recites tlic exploits of a hero ; tragedy represents 
a disastrous event ; comedy ridicules the vices and follies of 
mankind ; pastoral poetry describes rural life ; and elegy dis- 
plays the tender emotions of the heart." 

Colon, 

BuLE 11. The Colon separates a complete member of a 
sentence from an additional remark or illustration that depends 
upon it in sense but not usually in syntax : as, " In his last 
moments he uttered these words : * I fall a sacrifice to sloth 
and laxury.' " "Avoid evil doers : in such society an honest 
man ma.y become ashamed of himself. 

Rem. 5. When a conjunction is used to introduce the remark or illustration, a semi- 
colon may precede it : as, Avoid evil doers; for in such society an honest man may be- 
coine ashamed of himself. 

Rule 12. Several complete members, separated by the semi- 
colon, may be followed by the colon : as, "A divine legislator, 
uttering his voice from heaven ; an Almighty Governor, stretch- 
ing forth his arm to punish or reward; informing us of perpet- 
ual rest prepared hereafter for the righteous, and of indignation 
and wrath awaiting the wicked : these are the considerations 
which overawe the world, which support integrity and check 
guilt." 

Period, 

Rule 13. The period is inserted at the close of a complete 

sentence that is not necessarily connected with any other, either 
in sense or in s^mtax : as, Obey your parents. The sun is a 

large body. 

Rem. G. Conjunctions are sometimes used to introduce a sentence after a period: as, 
" Recreations, thon,^h they may be of an innocent kind, require steady government to 
keep them within a due and limited province. But such as are of an irregular and vi- 
f'irins nature, are not to be governed, but to be banished from every well regulated 

mind." 

Note 7. The period follows words abbreviated : as, Mr., Mrs., Dr., Col., 
Rev., Ya., Ky. 



(R. 


!•) 


(11. 


2.) 


(N. 


1-) 


(N. 


2.) 


(R. 


3.) 


(N 


3.) 



1^2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE 102. 

The Pupil should commit the foregoing rules as he applies them in cor- 
recting the following: 

The love, of money, is the root of all evil. 
The good taste of the present age has not allowed us to neg- 
lect the cultivation of the English language. 
To do unto others as w'e would have them do unto ns is re- 
quired of us all. 

I intend during the next summer to visit my parents in Eng- 
land. 

Prosperity gains friends and adversity tries them. 
I verily believed, that all he did was right. 

(Rem. 2.) That all he did was right I verily believed. 

(R. 4.) Colonel what is to be done now"? The clock having struck 
ten the meeting adjourned. 

(R. 5.) John the forerunner of Christ was sent to baptize. 

(Rem. 3.) John, the baptist, preached in the wilderness of Judea. 

(R. 6.) He was humble devout faithful. 

(N. 4.) My liberty, my country are all the world to me. 

(N. 5.) When was grammar geccrraphy or arithmetic taught here? 

(R. 7.) Pleasure and pain beauty and deformity good and ill seem to 
me everyvv^here interwoven. 

(N. 6.) Devout yet cheerful; active yet resigned. 

(R. 8.) Moreover Job continued his parable, and said. Finally let 
us conclude. 

(Rem. 4.) He w^as, finally, acquitted. 

(R. 9.) You know that alcohol may undermine your health ruin 
your reputation and beggar your family v/hy will you not 
therefore abandon its use? 

(R. 10.) A noun expresses a name a pronoun represents a noun a 
verb expresses an act an adjective qualifies a noun an adverb 
qualifies a verb a preposition connects words a conjunction 
connects sentences and an interjection expresses emotion. 

CR. 11.) A brute arrives at a point of perfection that it can never pass 
in a few years he has all the endowments he is capable of 
and were he to live ten thousand more he would be the same 
thing he is at present. 



PROSODY. 183 

(R. 12.) He has defrauded the Commonwealth he has appropriated the 
public funds to his own use he has brought disgrace upon 
himself and poverty upon the State therefore ho is dismissed 
from an office which he is no longer worthy to hold. 

(R. 13.) Man is mortal God is just Vice produces misery 

(N 7.) Geo Jas Chap Heb Col Esq Vol 

The Dash. 

The Dash sometimes follows an inserted point, or is used instead of it; 
indicating that the pause should be greater than the point simply would 
require : as, 

" Revere thyself; — and yet thyself despise." 
" Send he his vassal train — himself advance — 
Here will I take my stand — decide our svi^ords the chance." 

Rem. 7. The dash is sometimes used to mark a sudden interruption or turn in the 
sentiment : as, I promise you that I will Will what 7 inquired Anna. 

Rem. 8. The dash is also used to denote the omission of some letters or words 
which it might not be proper or necessary to express : as, D — 1. K — g, A long dash 
is sometimes called an ellipsis. 

Note of Interrogation, 

The Interrogation point is put at the close of a sentence that asks a 
question: as, V^hy do you weep? 

Rem. 9. When the question is indirect, this point is not annexed : as, 
" The Cyprians asked me why I wept !" 

Note of Admiratio7i, 

The Admiration point is used to denote strong emotions : as, 
" O Rome ! my country ! city of the soul !" 

P are7ithesis . 

The Parenthesis encloses something not properly connected with the 
sentence : as, 

*' Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
Virtue alone is happiness below." — Pope. 

Other Signs used in Writing. 

[ ] Brackets commonly enclose something to be explained, or the ex- 
planation itself: as, The teacher [Mr. Barton] explained it. 

Rem. 10. Parentheses or Commas are fiequently used in preference to Brackets: aS| 
The teacher (Mr. Barton) explained itj or, The teacher, Mr. Barton, explained it. 

16 



Marginal Pointers. 



184 ^ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(-) The Hyphen comes between two words forming a compound: as, 
Coffee-cup, Brother-in-law. 

Rem. 11. The Hyphen, at the end of a line, denotes that the word is to be finished 
on the succeeding line. The break should never be made between letters of the same 
syllable, but between distinct syllables. 

( <j ) The Brace embraces several terms that have a common applica- 
tion : as, 

Asterisk (*) 

Dagger (f) 

Double Dagger (t) 
Section ( §) 

Parallel (H) 

Paragraph (Ip) 

The asterisk,* daggers, section, parallel, paragraph, figures, and small 
letters, are used to refer to something at the margin or bottom of the page. 

([CT) The Index points to something demanding particular notice. 

(a) The Caret shows where to insert what has been accidentally omit- 
her 
ted : as. She wept for deceased mother. 

A 

Rem. 12. A small caret placed over a vowel to distinguish its broad sound, is called 
a circumflex : as, Eclat. 

(••) The Diseresis is placed over the latter of two vowels occurring to- 
gether, to show that they are not pronounced in the same syllable : as, 
Aerial. 

(') The Apostrophe is used to denote possession and elision, and also 
to end a quotation : as, 

" Othello's occupation 's gone." 

(" ") Quotation marks enclose the exact words of some other speaker 
or writer. 

Rem. 13. A quotation within a quotation is distinguished by one inverted comma 
and an apostrophe : as, 

" Had 'the man of son-ows' any joys?" 

Rem. 14. When both quotations begin or end together, the three characters are used 
together : as, 
" This St. Paul signifies, when he says, ' The sorrow of the world worketh death.' " 

(u) The Breve is used over a short vowel or syllable, and a small dash 
(-) over a long one : as. Folly, rosy. 

(') Tlie Acute accent may distinguish either a short sound, an accented 
syllable, or the rising inflection of the voice. 

* Three of these characters of triangular shape (***) form an asterism. It may be 
used at the beginning of a long note, but without any reference. 



PROSODY. 185 

('') The Grave accent may distinguish either a long sound or the fall- 
ing inflection of the voice. 

(§) The Section commonly marks the smaller divisions of a book. 

(]f) The Paragraph (used chiefly in the Bible) often denotes also the 
beginning of a new subject. 

EXERCISE 103. 

Beginning with the brackets, mark down all the foregoing signs, and 
tell the name and use of each. 

ELOCUTION. 

Elocution is tKe proper management of the voice in pronun- 
ciation or delivery; — comprising Accent, Quantity, Emphasis, 
Pauses, and Tones. 

Accent is a peculiar stress of the voice laid upon a certain 
syllable in a word: as, vir in virtue; ma in grammarian. 

In poetry, the metrical accent may be placed upon monosyllabic words. 

The quantity of a syllable is the time required to pronounce it. 

Short syllables, such as tub and pin, are pronounced in half the time 
that is required to pronounce the long syllables tube and pine. 

The following syllables are short, and represent haste : 
" Run quickly to help him." 

The following syllables are long, and indicate sloth : 

''Drag four long chains." 

Rem. Thongh all the syllables in the first example are comparatively short, yet the 
time required to pronounce some of them is longer than that which is required to pro- 
nounce others. It is easily perceived that the syllables quick and help, have more 
quantity than ly and to ; and in poetry they woi\ld both receive the metrical accent, and 
oe considered long syllables. In the following lines, the breve (u) denotes the short 
or unaccented syllables, and the dash (-) the long or accented syllables. 

When all thy mercies, o? my God, 
My rising soul surveys. 

Emphasis is a stress laid upon a word to mark its impor- 
tance, and to convey the idea intended. 

The following italic words are emphasized : 

Will you ride to town to-day? No, I shall send an agent. 
Will you ride to town to-day? No, I shall walk. 
Will you ride to town to-day? No, I shall go another direction. 
Will you ride to town to-day? No, I shall go to-morrow. 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Words in contrast, or in opposition, are emphatical : as, 
It is sown in corruption; it is raised in incorruption : it is sown in dis- 
honor; it is raised in glory: it is sown in weakness; it is raised in power: 
it is sown a natural body; it is raised a spiritual body. There is a na- 
tural body, and there is a spiritual body. — 1 Cor. xv. 

Pauses are necessary cessations of the voice to enable the 
speaker to take breath, and the hearers to perceive the mean- 
ing. 

Tones are modulations of the voice produced by the feelings 
of the speaker, according to the nature of the subject. 

The voice '' should thunder in anger, soften in sorrow, tremble in 
fear, and melt in love." — ^Bullions. 

Anger, Be gone! thou wretch! begone!! 
Sorrow. She breathes her last. 

Fear, He's coming! he's coming!! Oh! I'm murdered!! I'm mur- 
dered!!! 
Love. Love thee, dearest? Yes, with all my heart I love thee. 

Rem. In modulating the voice, care should be taken that it be neither so high as to 
become unpleasant, nor so low as to be inaudible : neither so fast as to be indistinct, 
nor so slow as to bring languor upon the audience. Utterance, in any tone, should be 
full, clear, and distinct, and exactly adapted to the circumstances of the hearers. 

EXERCISE104. 

What is elocution? What does it comprise? What is accent? Quan- 
tity? Emphasis? Pauses? Tones? 

« Get thee behind me, Satan." 
Is the quantity of these syllables comparatively long or short? Give 
another example of short syllables. — Of long. In the word Satan, which 
syllable receives the accent? What word in that sentence receives the 
emphasis? Give an example of a tone of anger. — Of sorrow. — Of fear. 
Of love. In the following lines tell which syllables are long or accented, 
and which are short or unaccented: 

Restless mortals toll for naught 
Bliss in vain from earth is sought. 

VERSIFICATION. 

Versification is the art of arranging syllables according to 
measure, or metrical accent. 



PROSODY. 187 

There are in English two distinct kinds of verse, viz.: Blank verse and 
rhyme. Blank verse has ten syllables to each line: as, 

" Knowledge and wisdom far from being one 
Have oft-times no connection. Knowledge dwells 
In heads replete with thoughts of other men; 
Wisdom in minds attentive to their own." 

Verse in rhyme has the last syllables of verses to agree in sound, and 
may be composed of any number of syllables: as, 

*' So pass'd the day — the evening fell, 
'Twas near the time of curfew bell." 

A verse is one line of poetry: as, 

" So pass'd the day— the evening fell." 
A hemistich is half a verse: as, 

" So pass'd the day * * :f; ifs >j 

A distich or couplet is two verses: as, 

" 'Tis education forms the common mind, 
Just as the twig is bent the tree's inclined." 

A triplet is three verses that rhyme together: as, 

" And there the fallen chief is laid 
In tasseled garb of skins arrayed 
And girded with his wampum braid.'* 

A stanza is any number of verses that may constitute a regular division 
of a poem: as, 

" So pass'd the day — the evening fell, 
'Twas near the time of curfew bell; 
The air was mild, the wind was calm, 
The stream was smooth, the dew was balm." 

Alliteration is the frequent recurrence of the same letter: as, 

" Up the high. hiW he Aeaves a Auge round stone." 
'Then time tmns torment when man turns a fool." 

Pauses. — Beside the sentential pauses that divide the sense, there are 
two harmonic pauses to preserve the melody; viz: The csesural and the 
final pauses. The ceesural pause is made within the line, and the final, at 
the end: as, 

*'' Warms in the sun" refreshes in the breeze. 
Glows in the stars" and blossoms in the trees." 

A foot in measure is either two or three syllables: as, 

Afoot of two syllables . Jl foot of three syllables. 

How bright On the land 

The light. Let me stand. 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Each of the following lines is composed of two feet, and two syllables 
to each foot: as, 

Our spoil : is won. 

Our task ' is done. 

The following verse is composed of four feet, and two syllables to each 
foot: as, 

Linger — gentle — spirit — near iis. 
The following verse has three feet, and three syllables to each foot: as, 

I am mon-arch of all-I siu'vey. 

Rem. Ttiese syllables nnited, are called feet, because it is by their aid that the 
voice, as it were, steps along through the verse in a measured pace. 

All feet, in poetry, may be reduced to eiglit kinds: viz., four of two syl- 
lables to each foot; and four of three syllables to each foot; as follows: 



^- r Iambus ^ - : as, Juan.'f' Oiir spoil — Is Vv^on. 

S J Trochee -^ : as, Trophy. Linger | gentle | spirit ] near us. 

^.1 Spondee--: as. Speak dear. 

c? "^ Pvrrhic ^, -^ : as, Ter)?/&«5. 



s,; r Anap-£5t ^ ^-: as, Antecede. I am mon-arch of all | I survey. 
^ J Dactyl -^ o •■ as, Daffodil. March to the \ battlefield | fearlessly. 
g. 1 Amphibrach j -j- as, Ambition. 
« "^ Tribrach u o ^'^ a^> (Tnh)utary. 

Iambic verse has the lirst syllable unaccented, and the second, accented. 

Trochaic verse has the first syllable accented, and the second, unac- 
cented. 

Anapa?stic verse has the first two unaccented, and the last, acceute-d. 

Dactylic verse has the first accented, and the last two, unaccented. 

Rem. These four are the principal English feet: the other four are only secondary, 
being used chiefly to diversify the numbers and improve the verse. The dactyl is sel- 
dom used. 

Psalms and hymns are written in iambic verse. 

In long met]e, there are four iambuses to each line of the stanza: as, 



When i 
On which 
I\Iy rich 
And pour 



s\;rvey the won I drous cross 

the Prince of 2;lo rv died, 

est g.j-in I count | but loss, 

contempt | on all j my pride. 



* These eight "svords bein? commiued, will sen'e as a kind of index to the measure. 
The sound of each will suggest the name of the foot, and the accent will suggest the 
accent of the foot: thus, Trophv will suggest the sound trochee; and being a word of 
two syllables and accented on ihe first, it will very naturally suggest the idea that a 
trochee is a foot of two syllables, the first being accented, and the second unaccented: 
and so of the rest. It must be remembered that in the words, perilous and tributary^ 
the first syllable of each is dropped, and the remaining ones serve as the index. 



PROSODY. 



189 



In common metre, the first and the third line have each four iam- 
buses, and the second and the fourth have three: as, 



Once more 


mv soul 


the rl 


sing day 


Salutes 


thy wak 


ing eyes. 




Once more 


my voice 


thy trib 


ute pay 


To him 


that rules 


the skies. 





In short metre, the first, the second, and the fourth line, have each three 
iambuses, aud the third has four: as. 



The day 
The eve 
O may 
The night 



is past 


ning shades 


we all 


of death 



and gone 
appear; 
remem 
draws near. 



ber well 



Iambic verse of five feet is called heroic verse: as, 

Where slaves I once more I their na I tive land I behold 
No fiends J torment, | no chris | tians thirst | for gold. 

An Iambic verse of six feet is termed an Alexandrine: as, 

A need I less Al [ exan | drine ends I the song, I 

Which like | a wound | ed snake | drags its [ slow length | along. 

Rem. The recurrence of metrical accent is not always uniform, but it is often varied 
by the sense and the established pronunciation: as, 

Night is the time for rest, 
H5w sweet when labors close. 
To gather round our aching breast 
The curtain of repose. 

When a verse is composed principally of iambuses, it is called iambic 
verse: when of trochees, it is called trochaic verse: when of anapeests, it 
is called anapaestic verse; and when of dactyls, it is called dactylic verse 
or measure. 

The following are iambic verses, with other additional feet : as, 

" Good /?/e,* be now my task, mj^ doubts are done." 
''Nor in the helpless orphan dread a foe." 
"What can ennoble sots or slaves or cowards? 
Alas! not all the blood of all the Hoioardsy 
" And thunders down ixn^Qiuous to the plain." 

Scanning is the resolving of verses into the several feet of 
which they are composed. 



* The italic words in the first quotation compose a spondee: in the second, a pyrrhio: 
in the third, an amphibrach: in the fourth, a tribrach. 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE105. 

What is versification? What are the two kinds of verse? How many 
syllables to each line of blank verse? How do you distinguish verse in 
rhyme from blank verse? — Example. What is a verse? — Example. What 
is a hemistich? — Example. A distich? — Example. A triplet? — Exam- 
ple. A stanza — Example. Alliteration? — Examples. What pauses be- 
side the sentential? Where are they made? — Example. What is a foot 
in measure? Express feet of two syllables. Of three. Two feet of two 
syllables each. Four feet of two syllables each. Three feet of three syl- 
lables each. Why are these syllables called feet? How many kinds of 
feet are there? What word will exemplify the foot iambus? trochee? 
spondee? pyrrhic? — (Answer: the last two syllables of perilous.) Ana- 
paest? dactyl? amphibrach? tribrach? Tell what feet have two syllables 
to the foot, and how each is accented. Tell what feet have three syllables 
to the foot, and how accented. Name the principal English feet, and tell 
how they are accented. For what are other feet used? In what verse are 
psalms and hymns written? How many iambuses to each line of the long 
metre stanza? — Example. How many iambuses in common metre? In 
short metre? What is an iambic verse of five feet called? — Example. 
An iambic of six feet? — Example. Rehearse an example in which the 
recurrence of metrical accent isjiot uniform. When averse is composed 
principally of iambuses, what is it called? Of trochees? Of anapaests? Of 
dactyls? 

EXERCISE 106 .—Scanning. 
Scan the following pieces; i. e., resolve every verse into feet, and tell 
the measure of each stanza : After which, parse them. 

The seas shall waste, the skies in smoke decay, 
Rocks fall to dust, and mountains melt away; 
But fix'd his word, his saving power remains: 
Thy realm forever lasts, thy own Messiah reigns. 

Trembling, hoping, ling'riug, flying. 

Oh! the pain, the bliss of dying: 

Cease fond nature, cease thy strife. 

And let me languish into life. 

At the close of the day, when the hamlet is still, 

And mortals the sweets of forgetfulness prove; x 

When naught but the torrent is heard on the hill, 

And naught but the nightingale's song in the grove. 



PROSODY. 191 

Holy and pure are the pleasures of piety, 
Drawn from the fountain of mercy and love; 
Endless, exhaustless, exempt from satiety, 
Rising unearthly and soaring above. 

STYLE. 

Good style consists in the use of words in good taste, and of sentences 
properly constructed. 

Purity, precision, and propriety, relate to a tasty choice of words. 

Perspicuity, unity, and strength, relate to a proper construction of 
sentences. 

Purity, Precision^ and Propriety. 

Purity rejects foreign, obsolete, and unauthorized words : as, Politesse, 
albeit, judgmatical. 

Precision rejects superfluous words and a useless tautology : as, In- 
temperance is a had and an evil thing. Where did you see him at? 

Propriety rejects, 

1st. Low and provincial expressions : as, Says I, go it ! You didn't, did ye? 

2d. Poetic terms in conversational or prose style : as, Morn, eve, oft, o'er. 

3d. Technical terms not understood by the one addressed. 

4th. A too frequent repetition of the same word : as, I want to go and see what he 
wants, and I am going to go. 

5th. Ambiguous expressions ; as, I witnessed his writing in the court-house. 

6th. Unintelligible and inconsistent expressions : as, He has been ail over the 
"world, and in Boston too. 

Perspicuity, Unity, and Strength 

Perspicuity consists in placing words and clauses in that position which 
will, present the idea in the clearest light : as, He, who is himself wearied, 
will soon weary his guest. — Not, <*He will soon weary his guest who is 
himself wearied." 

Unity consists in keeping one object prominent throughout the sen- 
tence or paragraph : as, *' Having come to anchor, I was put on shore, 
where I saluted all my friends, who received me with the greatest kind- 
ness." 

Obs. In this last example, the speaker is kept prominent throughout the sentence; 
but in the following construction, the scene changes too frequently : as, "After we 
came to anchor, they put me on shore, where I saluted all my friends, who received me 
with the greatest kindness." 

Rem. Clauses, having no immediate connection, should be separated into distinct 
sentences. 

17 



192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Strength consists in giving every word and member its due importance. 

Rem. 1. The most important words should be so placed as to produce the strongest 
impression. 

Rem. 2. A weak assertion should not follow a stronger one, nor a short member a 
longer one. 

Rem. 3. It is commonly inelegant to conclude sentences with short and incon- 
siderable words. 

EXERCISE 1 07. 

In what does good style consist? To what do purity, precision, and 
propriety, relate? To what do perspicuity, unity, and strength, relate? 
What does purity reject? Precision? Propriety? In what does perspi- 
cuity consist? Unity? Streng:th? Criticise the following words and 
sentences. 

I am gwine to church tlie morrow eve to see what I can see and to hear 
what I can hear " His memory shall be lost on the earth" "I have an 
opaque idea of what yow mean"' Cincinnati stands on the Ohio river and 
it empties into the Mississippi, and it contains a great number of inhabi- 
tants. I comiuend his faithfulness and fidelity The town of Winchester 
i?: in Frederick county which contains a numerous population. 

FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

Figures of Rhetoric are departures from the literal signification of 
words : thus, Mr. Jefierson employed figures of speech when he called 
John Adams *' the Colossus of that Congress — the pillar of support to tho 
Declaration of Independence. Figures of this kind are often called 
Tropes. 

Figures. 

Personification, Apostrophe, 

Simile, Interrogation, 

Metaphor, Hyperbole, 

Allegory, Irony, 

Metonomy, Antithesis, 

Synecdoche, Vision, 

Exclamation, Climax. 

Personification. By this figure we attribute life and action to inani- 
mate objects: as, " Old ocean smiles." '* The moon awoke." 

" Jordan beheld their march and fled 
With backward current to his head." — Watts. 

Jesus changed water into winef is plain language; but, "The conscious 
water saw its God and blushed," is highly figurative. 



PROSODY. 193 

Simile. This figure is introduced by like, as, or so, and expresses resem- 
blance: as, "As the mountains are round about Jerusalem, so the Lord 
is round about his people." 

" The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold." 

Metaphor. This figure implies resemblance, but it is not introduced 
by like, as, or so; thus, Pollok calls the unfaithful priest, 
*' A wolf in clothing of the gentle lamb." 
Christ says, " I am the vine, ye are the branches." 

Allegory. This figure is a metaphor continued, or several metaphors 
so closely connected as to form a kind of parable or fable: thus, The 
Psalmist represents the people of Israel under the symbol of a vine: 

"Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt; thou hast cast out the hea- 
then and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it, and didst cause it 
to take deep root, and it filled the land. The hills were covered with the 
shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars." 

Metonomy. By this figure we put one thing for another; as cause for 
effect or effect for cause, the container for the thing contained, etc.: as, 
They read Milton; i. e., the works of Milton. Gray hairs should be re- 
spected; i. e., old age, by which gray hairs are produced. He addressed 
the chair; i. e., the person in the chair. My son, give me thy heart; i.e., 
thy affections. 

Synecdoche. By this figure we put a part for the whole, or the whole 
for a part: as, ** This roof (house) shall be his protection." That year 
(summer) was sultry. By this figure an attribute is sometimes put for a 
subject, and a definite, for an indefinite number: as, " The youth (youu^' 
people) of my country." *' A thousand (great many) snares are laid for 
them." 

Obs. Synecdoche very mnch resembles metonomy. 

Exclamation. By this figure we express strong emotions: as, "O tliat 
my head were waters and mine eyes a fountain of tears!" 

Apostrophe. By this figure we turn from the subject to address some- 
thing absent as though it were present: as. "Death Ls swallowed uj) \n 
victory; O, death! where is thy sting? 0, grave! where is thy victoiy? 

Interrogation. By this figure we use language interrogatively, vAibn 
a direct answer is neither expected nor desired: as, " Hath the Lord said 
it? and will he not do it?" " Hath he spoken it, and will he not make it 



Hyperbole. By this figure we heighten or lower the circumstances of 
an object beyond its natural bounds; as, '^Slie darted like lightning." "1 



194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice; his spear, the blasted fir; his shield, 
the rising moon; he sat on the shore like a cloud of mist on the hill." 

Irony. By this figure we sneeringly express what we intend to have 
reversed: as, He is an apt scholar; meaning he is a dunce. Elijah mock- 
ing the priests of Baal in regard to the worship of their deity, said, "Cry 
aloud for he is a god: either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or, perad- 
venture, he sleepeth, and must be awaked." 

Antithesis. By this figure we contrast opposites to heighten the effect: 
as, " The prodigal robs his heir, the miser robs himself." "The wicked 
flee when no man pursueth, but the righteous are as bold as a lion." 

Vision or Imagery. By this figure we represent objects of the imagi- 
nation as though they were actually present to our senses: as, 

" Canaan he now attains; I see his tents 
Pitch'd about Shechem and neighboring plains 
Of Moreh." 

Climax. By this figure the circumstances of an object are made to rise 
m importance, step by step, or to descend gradually to what is more and 
more minute: as, "Add to your faith, virtue; to virtue, knowledge; to 
knowledge, temperance; and to temperance, patience; and to patience, god- 
liness; and to godliness, brotherly kindness; and to brotherly kindness, 
charity." 

EXERCISE 10 8. 

What are figures of rhetoric? Name them. How is personification 
used? Examples. Simile? Examples. Metaphor? Examples. Alle- 
gory? Example. Metonomy? Example. Synecdoche? Examples. 
Exclamation? Example. Apostrophe? Example. Interrogation? Ex- 
ample. Hyperbole? Examples. Irony? Examples. Antithesis? Ex- 
amples. Vision? Example. Climax? Example. 

Distinguish the rhetorical figures in the following examples: after which, parse them. 

" Her complexion was fairer than snow, and her hair was blacker than 
a raven." 

" Hast thou an arm like God? and canst thou thunder with a voice 
like him?" 

" O that I had the wings of a dove I for then would I fly away and be 
at rest! " 

" Would to God that I had died for thee, O Absalom, my son, my 
son!" 



PROSODY. i95 

** The deep uttered his voice and lifted up his hands on high." 
*'At first liiie thunder's distant tone. 
The rattling diji came rolling on," 

" The tree of knowledge, blasted by disputes, 
Produces sapless leaves instead of fruits." 
*' The house being called to order, he addressed the chair." 
*' Man gets his bread by the sweat of his face." 

" There is a wise boy in the school, who thinks that the moon is only 
a mile distant." 

*' The rich have wealth, the poor have health." 

'< Behold, fond man I 
See here thy pictur'd life; pass some few years, 
Thy flowering spring, thy summer's ardent strength, 
Thy sober autumn fading into age; 
And pale concluding winter comes at last, 
And shuts the scene." 
" I seem to myself to behold this city, the ornament of the earth, and 
capital of all nations, suddenly involved in one conflagration. I see be- 
fore me the slaughtered heaps of citizens lying unburied in the midst of 
their ruined country." 

" What a piece of work is man I how noble in reason! how infinite in 
faculties! in form and moving, how express and admirable! in action, 
how like an angel! in apprehension, how like a god!" 

CAPITAL LETTERS. 

The following should begin with capital letters; viz.: 
1st. All proper names and names personified proper: as, James, Byron, 
Boston. Come, gentle Spring. 

2d. All appellations of the Deity: as, God, Lord, Jehovah, Supreme 

Being. 

3d. Adjectives derived from proper names: as, Grecian, Roman, Amer- 
ican. 

4th. The first word of every book, note, and of all other pieces of 
writing. 

5th. The first word of every line of poetry and of every distinct sen- 
tence. 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

6th. The first word after a period, and, if the two sentences are en- 
tirely independent, after a note of interrogation. 

7th. The principal subject of the composition, or a word remarkably 
emphatic or important. 

8th. The principal words of titles: as, Pope's Essay on Man. 

9th. The pronoun /and the interjection O. 

EXERCISEiy 

Yesterday i sent benjamin to columbus to purchase pollok's course of 
time, some of the north american Indians Now worship the great first 
cause, and o what a happy change has been wrought! 

Lol the poor Indian, whose untutor'd mind 
sees god in clouds or Hears him in the wind. 



Errata, 

Page 49 9th line for participle read participles 



66 12 


it 


„ indicative „ 


infinitive 


103 32 


a 


„ master „ 


mister 


121 11 


>» 


„ hear „ 


bear 


123 9 


>» 


„ debonnair „ 


debonair 


123 26 


>» 


„ belongs „ 


belong 


168 34 


»> 


„ have „ 


has, 



LIST OF BOOKS 

PUBLISHED BY 

H. S. & J. APPLEGATE, 

No. 39 Main Street, Cincinnati, 



' A good book IS the best friend— the same to-day and forever." 



H. S. <fe J. A., in addition to a large and varied assortment of 
School, Classical, Theological and Miscellaneous Books, whicli they 
have constantly on hand, publish a series of valuable Standard 
Works, suitable for the family circle as well as public libraries. 

At this time, when the press teems so abundantly with ephemer- 
al literature, the thinking mind experiences a need of some more 
substantial aliment ; of something which shall, at the same time, 
furnish not only enjoyment for the present, but matter for after 
thought ; something on which the mind shall delight to ponder in 
its communings with itself ; something from the perusal of which 
one can arise a wiser if not a better man ; and among their publi- 
cations they flatter themselves such books will be found. It is 
their aim to select works, the intrinsic worth of which will cause 
them to be sought after by enlightened and discriminating minds, as 
worthy of gracing the shelves of their libraries. 

Among their publications may be found the following, to which 
they would respectfully invite attention. To these it is their inten- 
tion to add the best works of the standard historical and other 
authors, and they trust that their selections will be such as to en- 
title them to a liberal share of the patronage of the book-buying 
public. 



APPLEGATES' PUBLICATIONS. 



ISCELLANEOUS. 



Complete W^orks of Tlios. Dick, L.L.. !>.; 2 vols., 
rojal 8vo, sheep — spring back, marbled edges. Illustrated with 
numerous Engravings and a Portrait of the Author ; comprising 
the following eleven works : 

An Essay on the Improvement of Society ; The Philosophy of a 
Future State ; The Philosophy of Religion ; The Mental Illumin- 
ation and Moral Improvement of Mankind ; An Essay on the 
Sin and Evils of Covetousness ; The Christian Philosopher, or 
Science and Religion ; Celestial Scenery ; Sidereal Heavens, 
Planets, <fec.; The Practical Astronomer ; The Solar System, its 
"Wonders ; The Atmosphere and Atmospherical Phenomena, (fee. 
The works of Dr. Dick are so well known and appreciated (be- 
ing such as should be in the possession of every family and made 
the daily study of its members, old and young), that the attempt to 
praise them would be like gilding fine gold. 

It has been the endeavor of the publishers to get up this edition 
in a style worthy of their merit ; and they flatter themselves that 
they have succeeded in so doing, as to paper, typography and bind- 
ing of the work, neither of which can be surpassed at the East or 
West. 

Rollings Ancient History ; 2 vols., royal 8vo, sheep- 
spring back. Illustrated with Maps and Portraits. The Ancient 
History of the Carthagenians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Medes, 
Persians, Grecians and Macedonians, including a HISTORY OF 
THE ARTS AND SCIEIS-CES OF THE ANCIENTS; with a 
Life of the Author. 

This invaluable work has ever maintained the first rank of Stand- 
ard Ancient History. This edition is in a very handsome Library- 
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with it. 

]?Iacaulay's History of fingiand 5 royal 8vo, libra- 
ry edition. The History of England, from the accession of James 
II. By Thomas Babingtox Macaulay. 2 vols., library edition. 

No history in the English language has ever before been sought 
after and read with greater avidity than the History of England by 
Macaulay, the first of living authors. It is indispensable for any 
one who wishes to possess a reputation for ordinary intelligence, to 
be in a degree familiar with Old England's tumultuous and, we 
may say, glorious history ! The distinguished reputation of Ma- 
caulay in the world of letters renders any commendation of his 
works unnecessary. There are many reasons that render the pres- 
ent work one of peculiar interest to"^ the American reader ; not the 
least of which is the manner in which Penn, Washington, and oth- 
ers associated with the early history of our continent, are spoken of. 



APPLEGATES' PUBLICATIONS* 



The Complete Works of Joseplius ; l vol., royal 
8vo. The Writings of Josephus are among the most valuable publi- 
cations. On account of their connection with sacred events, they 
are particularly interesting, not only to the ordinary reader of the 
Bible, but also to the student of theology. 

No family, or reader of history, should be without the Works of 
Josephus. In the publication of this edition, it has been our de- 
sign so to combine cheapness and durability, as to bring it within 
the reach of every family. 

The Young I^adies' Companion. 1 yoL, 12mo. 

"This work is designed to occupy an important place in the 
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at once attractive and instructive." 

The Cottage Bihle; 2 vols., imperial 8vo, 1,440 pages, 
embellished with 6 Maps and 26 Engravings. The Cottage Bible 
and Family Expositor ; containing the Old and New lestaments, 
with practical expositions and explanatory notes. Also, references 
and marginal readings of the Polyglott Bible, notes and selections 
from the Comprehensive Bible and other standard works, and a valua- 
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of Sunday Schools, Bible Classes and Christians generally. 

This is emphatically what its title imports— a Commentary on 
the Old and New Testaments, It was written for persons who read 
the Scriptures, not only to attain evangelical light, but also to 
quicken devotion, and to stimulate zeal and steadfastness m the 
way of godliness. 

It is designed to fill up a chasm between the Bible and the volu- 
minous commentaries of Henry, Clarke, Scott and Gill. It has no 
sectarian bearing; not favoring either party or sect ; neither are the 
opinions of others assailed ; but it is an attempt to teU what the 
Bible means. 

Christianity, as exemplified in the Conduct of its Sincere 
Professors. By Rev- Wm. Seckeu. 1 vol., 12mo. 

We would recommend this book to the attention of Christians 
P-enerally, as one replete with sterling thought, and an admirable 
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their graces. 



^ RllinellSLri's Clllircll Harp : Containing a choice selec- 
tion of Hymns and Tunes, comprising a variety of Metres, &c., -well 
adapted to all Christian Churches and Singing Schools ; affording 
a valuable aid in giving life and spirit both to public and private 
devotion. 

Fleetwood's I^ife of Christ; 8vo, 660 pages. Com- 
bining with the History of Christ, as furnished by the Apostles, a 
harmony of the Gospels, and an Exposition of Scripture, so woven 
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the lives and sufferings of his holy Evangelists, Apostles and Mar- 
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This production, by one of the first minds of his age, has been 
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Christian up in his most holy faith. 

Cyclopedia of History; 8vo, 750 pages, embossed. A 
popular Cyclopedia of History, Ancient and Modern ; forming a 
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places and things ; with notices of the present state of the princi- 
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Probably no richer medium of interesting information, in rela- 
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this '^ Cyclopedia of History ;'* comprising, in one large volume, 
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parvo/' and should be the " vade mecum " of every one desirous of 
obtaining useful knowledge. 

Altisonant ^Letters, by S. K. Hoshour. A rare book this 
and rare amusement it will afford to the reader. It is the veiy es- 
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strange words in the English language are humorously packed up 
in a series of letters by Lorenzo Altisonant to Squire Pedant. In 
reading it, one would think that Babel had come again, and yet it 
is all veritable English, to be found in our common dictionaries, 
l^or is the writing of such a book a mere whim. It is a work of 
real utility — designed to familiarize the reader, in a pleasing way, 
with all the strange terms in the language — some one or another of 
which he is constantly meeting. Let every lover of useful amuse- 
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